ECOLAS Handbook ecolas_wiki https://ecolas.shoutwiki.com/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.35.13 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk ECOLAS Handbook ECOLAS Handbook talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk 10 7 12 2009-05-02T18:34:55Z MediaWiki default 30443056 wikitext text/x-wiki <div> <!-- Beginning of header section --> {|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;background-color:#4682B4;border:1px solid #ccc;-moz-border-radius:20px" |style="width:45%;color:#000"| {|style="width:100%;border:solid 0px;background:none" |- |style="width:100%px;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;color:#000" | <div style="font-size:195%;border:none;margin: 0;padding:.1em;color:#FFFFFF">{{{welcome}}}</div> |}<!-- Blurb & useful links --> |style="width:45%;font-size:125%;color:#FFFFFF"| {{{blurb}}} |}<!-- End of blurb & useful links --> </div> a384f27c7f43d66acecf5d65137f0fd5a41a122e 10 9 18 14 2009-07-08T08:41:15Z MediaWiki default 30443056 wikitext text/x-wiki {{HeaderTemplate|welcome={{{welcome}}}|blurb={{{blurb}}}}} <br /> <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="background:transparent;" |- | width="50%" style="vertical-align:top; padding-right:0.5em;" | <!-- Info about this site --> {{SectionTemplate|title={{{about_title}}}|content={{{about_content}}}}} | width="50%" style="vertical-align:top; padding-left:0.5em;" | <!-- Featured Article --> {{SectionTemplate|title={{{featured_title}}}|content={{{featured_content}}}}} |} <br /> <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="background:transparent;" |- | width="50%" style="vertical-align:top; padding-right:0.5em;" | <!-- Did you know... --> {{SectionTemplate|title={{{didyouknow_title}}}|content={{{didyouknow_content}}}}} | width="50%" style="vertical-align:top; padding-left:0.5em;" | <!-- Site news --> {{SectionTemplate|title={{{news_title}}}|content={{{news_content}}}}} |} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ 78f8386e9d2112600b0c1d1b84022fead288afdb 0 1 19 8 2009-07-08T08:42:32Z MediaWiki default 30443056 wikitext text/x-wiki {{MainTemplate | welcome = Welcome to '''{{SITENAME}}!''' | blurb = You can put a short description of your wiki here. | about_title = About this site | about_content = This is your new site! 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The text is aimed at the widest possible audience to include educators, policy-makers, students and others interested in the evolution of undergraduate education in the European Higher Education Area. 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The text is aimed at the widest possible audience to include educators, policy-makers, students and others interested in the evolution of undergraduate education in the European Higher Education Area. 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Upload a new image over this one to set your own logo. 734fa5f907fd11ef18faa6435506d54c7d7d14ee 3 29 43 2013-03-28T18:59:56Z MediaWiki default 30443056 wikitext text/x-wiki {{s::User talk:Lcawte/header}} 3559a9a3d5b050de27eb5d8307d77d116689c1d1 3 31 46 45 2013-08-21T21:30:04Z MediaWiki default 30443056 wikitext text/x-wiki {{s::User:Solar Dragon/Talkheader}} ce291e93fb8d269830d46539397abfd041cbaa75 0 32 51 2017-05-03T00:30:43Z Helen MacDermott 30449125 Created page with "The purpose of this Handbook is to provide an introduction to various aspects of the Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe to those for whom it is yet unfamiliar. It is also me..." wikitext text/x-wiki The purpose of this Handbook is to provide an introduction to various aspects of the Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe to those for whom it is yet unfamiliar. It is also meant to provide an active resource to those institutions that currently identify themselves with LAS. The text is aimed at the widest possible audience to include educators, policy-makers, students and others interested in the evolution of undergraduate education in the European Higher Education Area. The Handbook is divided into three sections with a brief but fundamental bibliography of important resources at the end of each. The first section discusses the various elements that characterise a Liberal Arts and Sciences programme and the values that determine specific pedagogical methods and outcomes. A second section examines current models of liberal arts and sciences programmes by way of four case studies, comparing and contrasting their objectives and structures. A final section addresses the questions associated with the appropriate measure of evaluation to ensure high standards of quality in a liberal arts and sciences context. An augmented version of this Handbook may be found online at http://www.ecolas.eu/eng/. Here you will find links to additional information regarding the most important elements of our discussion. We trust that you will find this Handbook either a useful introduction or a welcome guide to the rapidly emerging world of the Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe. Preparation of this Manual was made possible by a Strategic Partnership Grant from Erasmus + titled “Best of Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe” (BLASTER). In addition to this work on characteristics and quality standards, BLASTER has also produced outcomes in the areas of teacher training-professional development and undergraduate research. For more on BLASTER, please consult the European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) website listed above. --Laurent Boetsch, Executive Director, European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) --Volker Balli, Academic Director, Leuphana Universitat, Luneburg --Lieke Schreel, Educational Director, Leiden University College, The Hague == '''Why Now?''' == The term “liberal arts” is certainly not new to Europe. For centuries, beginning with its origins in the Greco-Roman tradition and its evolution through the medieval period and the Renaissance, it defined higher education through its eventual organisation around the seven liberal arts of the Trivium (grammar, logic and rhetoric, the literary arts) and the Quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy, the mathematical arts). By focusing on the cultivation of wisdom through the nourishment of the soul by engagement with and mastery of these seven liberal arts, classical scholars meant to define the distinction between “education” and “training”. Such a distinction remains characteristic of the Liberal Arts and Sciences as we see them employed today. It is the habits of mind and modes of learning from the classical period that have lent themselves to the modern aims of LAS. The importance of critical thinking and assuming self-responsibility for one’s thoughts and the articulation of those thoughts, as well as the need to acquire an understanding of nature through the critical examination of all things, remain among the foundation stones of an LAS education. The shape and ethos of liberal education remained fundamentally unchanged until the 19th century. With the emergence of new university models in France and in Germany, however, attention was diverted to other aims. Napoleon’s grandes écoles gave primacy to the training for professions, while in Germany, the value of research within a strong disciplinary orientation in combination with Wilhelm von Humboldt’s concept of bildung became critical functions of the university. The 20th century, particularly during the post-World War II era, witnessed an important evolution in higher education owing primarily to increased access to the university, what some have termed its massification. The Bologna Process, whose basic premise is to provide a framework for university reform to meet the contemporary and future needs of evolving societies within the European Union, has been instrumental as a stimulus regarding new opportunities within the higher education sphere. As the original 1998 Sorbonne Joint Declaration on harmonization of the architecture of the European higher education system states: “An open area for higher learning carries a wealth of positive perspectives, of course respecting our diversities, but requires on the other hand continuous efforts to remove barriers and to develop a framework for teaching and learning which would enhance mobility and an ever closer cooperation.” (Sorbonne, 1) Within certain areas—most notably the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and, to some extent Germany—discussion of undergraduate education for the 21st century has included reform efforts led by the proponents of the Liberal Arts and Sciences. Their objectives aim to establish a comprehensive undergraduate degree that will prepare students both for continued study and/or successful professional careers. This particular designation, Liberal Arts and Sciences, includes not just the humanities and the social sciences readily associated with “liberal arts” but the natural sciences as well. It is this range of disciplines and the attention given to the interplay among them that persuades us that this is the kind of education necessary for student generations to meet the particular challenges of the 21st century. While many member states implemented the Bachelor/Master distinction, the recommendations of the Bologna Process are not prescriptive and the realisation of its objectives across the European Union has been uneven at best. Yet those objectives, refined in a series of subsequent Declarations, have provided a broad range of opportunities to rethink the options available to member states that seek reforms in their higher education systems. While the ministerial communiqués, the various Trend reports, the minutes of the Bologna Follow-Up groups or the various publications on education produced by the Bologna Process make scant direct reference to the Liberal Arts and Sciences, there is no doubt that the process has provided the impetus for a consideration of LAS as a viable alternative within European higher education and that several successful models have emerged. One of the most important features of the Bologna reform is the recommendation to divide the university degree into three separate cycles, the Bachelor, the Masters and the Ph.D. Institutions who take this division of degree cycles seriously have had to think carefully about exactly what constitutes an undergraduate (Bachelor) degree, what are its objectives, what should students be expected to learn, how might they best learn it and how might it be accurately evaluated. The emergence of interest in the Liberal Arts and Sciences derives precisely from this kind of assessment. Additional areas within the Bologna recommendations also support the growing interest in Liberal Arts and Sciences and its aims. One is the so-called “social dimension” of the process, generally understood as providing an education that is directed toward employability in the marketplace. But this is the narrowest understanding of the objective which is outlined in the London Communiqué of 2007 in much broader terms by stating that educational policy “should . . . maximize the potential of individuals in terms of their personal development and their contribution to a sustainable and democratic knowledge-based society.” This notion of one purpose of higher education to prepare its students for democratic citizenship is among the fundamental principles of a Liberal Arts and Sciences education. One notable outcome of the Bologna Reform is the emergence of an alternative to primarily content and research education toward a more student-centred education based on closer student/faculty relationships. Education centred on the student as learner and the various modes of learning available to make it most productive are critical to the LAS ethos. As a result of the response to the Bologna recommendations by those committed to the Liberal Arts and Sciences, a first-cycle or Bachelor degree aimed toward personal development in a knowledge-based society and characterised by student-centred learning provides a different way of thinking about undergraduate education. While Bologna provides a framework of opportunity for the Liberal Arts and Sciences, there are also cultural, economic, political and social trends that contribute to a consideration of LAS within the European context. The rapidly changing landscape of the challenges emerging for the 21st century demand that all nations examine closely the nature of the education of those whose task it will be to address and resolve those issues. Climate change, genetic engineering, the consequences of globalisation, the allocation of diminishing natural resources are all issues, among others, that share certain common characteristics and lend themselves to the ways in which those with an education in the Liberal Arts and Sciences typically address problems. So, for example, while we may be confident that these questions will ultimately be resolved, they are each long-term challenges for which much of the knowledge necessary for their resolution has yet to be produced. A student who is not inspired to a passion for lifelong learning or who does not understand how the content of her or his major specifically relates to other realms of knowledge, is not equipped to acquire or produce new knowledge in meaningful ways. That student will have little to contribute to a society that increasingly demands those attributes both in and outside the workplace. At our current pace, the information available for any one discipline is being doubled every seven years. The simple transfer of current knowledge from professor to student in the university within the framework of a narrow disciplinary organisation is wholly inadequate. If narrow specialisation will be insufficient in and of itself to address 21st century issues, what and how should university students be learning in order to be sufficiently prepared? Proponents of LAS would answer briefly that students need to acquire the skills that will allow them to recognize which questions to ask, where to look for their answers and how to express them clearly and intelligently. A brief summary of the most common characteristics of Liberal Arts and Sciences will help to demonstrate its appropriateness as an educational process that cultivates those skills and which deserves careful consideration within the overall university reform movement in Europe. == '''Creating a Framework for Liberal Arts and Sciences''' == An important aspect of the Liberal Arts and Sciences is that its implementation does not correspond to a single model. It defies a rigid definition because LAS is an ongoing process of education and it is precisely this flexibility in its nature that sometimes provokes its critics. Liberal Arts and Sciences education is most prevalent in the United States and some of its European critics contend that that tradition is a result of specific circumstances that do not apply to other parts of the world where culture, history and tradition have shaped different but equally appropriate approaches to higher learning. Yet we do a disservice to LAS education if we try to straightjacket it into a specific non-transferable format rather than examine the variety of ways that its characteristics can be integrated into any educational settings where there is the will to do so. There is no cultural bias that excludes good teaching, rigorous research to help inform that teaching, an effort to help students realise their full intellectual and personal potential and preparation in the kinds of skills appropriate to the world in which students will live and work, all of which are essential to the LAS ethos. While there must be a degree of flexibility in the development and evolution of an LAS programme, in order to create a proper framework, it is, nevertheless, necessary to distinguish those characteristics that ought to be present. These factors might appear in varying degrees, but there is general agreement that they provide the basic organisation of the Liberal Arts and Sciences. A recent survey of LAS colleges and programmes included in the European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) reveals both common, essential characteristics as well as diverse complementary aspects of LAS education that testify both to its specific nature and its flexibility. Each of the programmes and institutions responding include statements attesting to the following: a curriculum that offers a broad learning perspective, deep knowledge in one or more areas of academic interest to the student and a high level of intellectual and academic development expected in both proposed learning outcomes that demonstrate a commitment to highly developed cognitive skills including problem-solving, independent critical thought, the ability to work individually and collaboratively, oral and written communication skills knowledge across a range of disciplines the importance of citizenship and its responsibilities as one of the aims of an LAS education the cultivation of the skills, knowledge and passion for lifelong learning '''== Curricular breadth and depth ==''' This is the most visible characteristic of LAS and the one that sets it apart from the typical European approach to undergraduate education. Rather than having to choose a strict discipline upon entrance to the university, an LAS curriculum will allow students to explore a range of subjects, usually during the first year or, in the case of the United States, the first two years, before focusing on a particular major area of study. There are a variety of methods to providing this “breadth plus depth” approach, but the most successful are those that seek to give coherence to the breadth portion and flexibility to curricular depth. What is often termed “general education”, the breadth portion, should not be organized just to give students a sampling of different areas of knowledge but should have a specific purpose for their overall preparation. For instance, the courses may demonstrate various modes of thought or methodologies regarding the study of critical issues – how do scientists think, how do humanists approach ideas, how do quantitative resources contribute to problem solving, etc. These courses should, at the same time, introduce practice in and communication of the analytical and critical thinking skills that will be called upon for the successful completion of whichever major discipline a student may choose. With regard to curricular depth, it is important that there be an intentional refining and application of the skills introduced in the breadth portion of the curriculum to the work required in the concentrated depth sector. Those skills are often expressed in terms of specific course learning outcomes, which are, in turn, appropriately assessed and evaluated on an individual student basis. Increasingly and appropriate to the 21st century challenges indicated above, concentrated coursework in a particular discipline is complemented by courses that students are free to choose from related disciplines that provide additional perspective to their principal area of study. Contemporary “concentration” or “major” structures can be issue-, theme- or problem-oriented and, thus, based on more than one related field of study. This interdisciplinary approach to the major has found particular favour in a number of the new and emerging Liberal Arts and Sciences undergraduate degree programmes in the European Union. Another important expression of the skills that are the objectives of learning in LAS is realized in the opportunity for undergraduates to pursue research in their chosen area of concentration. The teaching of research methodologies, the mentoring of students engaged in research and the assessment of student research efforts are all part of the teaching responsibilities of faculty in LAS programmes, and independent research is often the requirement of “capstone” exercises, Bachelor Thesis or culminating projects within the major. The overall aim of the breadth and depth nexus and the various means to its implementation is to offer a rigorous, meaningful and ultimately practical approach to undergraduate education and provide students with the knowledge and the tools for success in continued study or in the workplace. == '''Learning Environment, Learning Outcomes, Essential Skills and Lifelong Learning''' == An LAS education is designed to foster certain skills to apply to disciplinary content in meaningful and practical ways. Approaches to learning within the LAS context attempt to guide students intentionally toward the essential skills that will prepare them for advanced studies, professional development and lifelong learning: critical thinking, problem solving, collaborative learning and oral and written communication. Critical thinking is associated with the capacity to form abstract concepts, integrate them into specific circumstances and provide some judgment or evaluation of their effectiveness, in other words, mastering how to go from theory to practice. Problem solving teaches students how to collect, analyse and evaluate evidence, and then how to apply such evidence to problem resolution either within the academic setting or as part of engaged co-curricular activity. While students are responsible for their own individual academic progress, through group projects and shared research activities, collaborative learning cultivates the attitudes and provides the opportunity for experience in the kind of work that is generally expected in the workplace. The accurate and authentic expression of ideas through oral and written communication is a constant exercise throughout the curriculum and provides students with the practice and discipline necessary for their mastery. The typical LAS learning environment, generally characterized as an intensive interactive environment, provides a number of avenues for students to learn and to apply these skills. Class discussions guided by the professor, projects outside the classroom, small group collaboration among students, individual and collaborative research, as well as frequent exercises in oral and written communication, are among the pedagogical practices that enable students to acquire these important skills before taking on advanced study or employment. This environment is most successful when structured on a small scale to allow frequent interaction between and among students and faculty. While small class sizes and low student/faculty ratios are ideal for creating such an environment, it is also possible to structure large classes in such a way as to implement some of these interactive aspects. For example, lecture sections can be divided into smaller groups for the purpose of discussion, writing assignments or oral presentations. One important goal of Liberal Arts and Sciences is to provide the skills and to promote the enthusiasm in students to pursue learning beyond the classroom, what is often referred to as “lifelong learning”. Many of the pedagogical tools employed in teaching within a Liberal Arts and Sciences environment reach beyond disciplinary content to instruct students on how to learn and to keep on learning. This particular capacity, while important for the workplace where the accumulation and application of new knowledge is essential for advancement also contributes to the enhancement of the quality of life, part of the active citizenship for which the Liberal Arts and Sciences prepare students. '''''Engaged citizenship''''' Preparation for engaged citizenship is perhaps the least well understood aspect of a Liberal Arts and Sciences education but may be the most significant in terms of its overall impact. While LAS does not overlook the importance of educating the individual, it also claims that its methods, aims and outcomes prepare students to be positive actors within a community dedicated to the cultivation and exercise of those principles that define a free, democratic society. This notion is not new to LAS, rather, it formed an essential part of its purpose from its very origins. The fields of study that defined the liberal arts in the ancient world—the Quadrivium and the Trivium—were thought to provide the essential skills and knowledge to give individuals the capacity to assume community responsibility. The focus on intellectual development and curiosity, thinking critically and communicating effectively aimed and continues to aim at educating citizens willing to sustain the common good in a civic society. This is one of the areas where the purpose of an LAS education separates from the goal of simply training students for employment in the workplace. While the oft-mentioned skills of critical thinking, effective communication and problem-solving should be an essential element in the learning outcomes of specific courses, in the current LAS environment much of the refining of those skills takes place outside the classroom. Participation in student organizations, study abroad, community service, internships, volunteer work, work-study programmes and related opportunities provide students with the means to contribute actively to society at large and to learn the importance of community engagement. This is what is meant when defenders of LAS speak of educating “the whole person”. Course content is just one aspect of many that make up the overall fabric of an LAS education. It is the critical blending of each of these curricular and co-curricular elements that ultimately distinguish an LAS graduate. In sum, a basic framework for a Liberal Arts and Sciences programme will include the following: --An institutional ethos committed to the goals and objectives of LAS --Learning outcomes that stress particular skills for lifelong education to include critical and analytical thinking, oral and written communication, collaborative learning and problem-solving --Curricular and co-curricular opportunities to apply learning skills to civic and community issues to allow students to acquire a civic consciousness --Appropriate strategies for assessment and evaluation that ensure the success of proposed learning outcomes Yet the framework is not enough to ensure that students will, in fact, experience the benefits of an LAS education. In order to successfully implement its objectives and goals, the key factor in providing an education that will realize its aims is the nature and the quality of the teaching to which students are exposed. == '''Teaching Practices at the Heart of an LAS Education''' == Teaching in a Liberal Arts and Sciences environment requires a strong commitment to its principles and a willingness to work towards excellence in teaching as a vital aspect of one’s professional development. It must be noted, however, that an essential component of good teaching in LAS is a serious dedication to ongoing scholarly activity and research. This balance between teaching and research that can help to inform teaching is critical to ensuring the success of an LAS curriculum and it is important for an LAS institution to provide faculty the resources necessary for its ongoing development. Without faculty who demonstrate the same characteristics of curiosity, problem-solving and lifelong learning that they are charged with inspiring in their students, the framework that we have just described becomes nothing more than a sterile organizational structure. The main teaching challenge for faculty in LAS programmes is how to create and sustain an interactive classroom environment that will engage students in such a way as to develop the cognitive skills that characterize LAS and, at the same time, guide them toward mastering course content. Preparation begins with the course syllabus which, in addition to listing assignments to be prepared for each class, should also include: learning outcomes for the course consistent with those of the overall curriculum, a description of the kinds of activities—group projects, oral presentations, out-of-class lectures or talks, etc.—for which students will be held responsible and an explanation of how student performance will be evaluated. In general, the faculty member leading an LAS class will act primarily as a guide, helping students to make their own discoveries about the course material, articulate those discoveries accurately and put them forward to be tested by both faculty and their student peers. While traditional lectures can remain a part of the classroom, leading class discussion, overseeing work in small groups, effectively evaluating students on an ongoing basis and developing the kind of faculty-student relationship that inspires confidence are among the necessary skills for an LAS instructor. These are learnable skills that should be periodically revised and refined through active engagement in professional development. Teaching in an LAS environment should be a subject for discussion among faculty who share together their successes and failures in the classroom in order to consistently improve classroom performance. A recent study conducted for the American Council on Education focuses on instruction and student outcomes and demonstrates the importance of the quality of instruction in helping students to attain targeted outcomes. The study lists five essential faculty practices to ensure successful student learning and can be summarized as follows: Transparency: Students must have a clear understanding of where they are going, as well as the criteria by which they will be assessed. Pedagogical approaches: Personalized instruction and active learning are among the most successful approaches for student-centred learning. Assessment: Supportive learning environments that assess learning only at the end of a course are insufficient. Students need feedback along the way as they engage in multiple opportunities to practice learning. Self-regulation: A necessary aspect of good teaching practice is to ensure that students be active learners, not just passive recipients in the learning process. Alignment: Learning environments are most successful when there is a clearly organised coherence among its various elements so that student learning does not become fragmented. One of the ongoing difficulties for proponents of LAS has been the challenge to quantify its claims for producing positive outcomes in cognitive growth and the role that good teaching plays in that process. It is much easier to measure content knowledge through traditional testing methods than it is to assess gains in areas such as critical thinking, problem-solving, communication skills or a capacity for lifelong learning. However, recent studies in the United States have produced results that appear to confirm significant cognitive growth in LAS settings during the course of the undergraduate experience based on the quality of teaching. Among some of the important conclusions of these studies are: 1) that clear and well-organized instruction fosters the acquisition of course knowledge but also adds to student cognitive growth and 2) “deep learning” experiences have clear, positive impacts on growth in critical thinking skills and moral reasoning. Comparing the institutional results, it is demonstrated that while students exposed to clear and organized instruction and deep learning experiences in any institutional setting showed positive cognitive outcomes, “(r)elative to their peers at both research universities and regional institutions, liberal arts college students realized significant advantages on both their critical-thinking skills and their need for cognition that were attributable to exposure to higher levels of instructional clarity and organization and more frequent deep-learning experiences”. This then is the sum of our introduction: Liberal Arts and Sciences is a viable approach toward learning that provides students with the skills and competencies they require for advanced study, for productive professional careers and for meaningful lives, especially in the 21st century. It requires a certain framework within which to flourish but that framework is flexible and relies as much on process as on structure. Finally, it demands well-prepared, active teaching in order to realize the full measure of its objectives. Our next two chapters will focus on current European models of LAS institutions and the ways by which this type of learning can be effectively assessed and evaluated. While the number of LAS colleges and programmes in the European Higher Education Area remain few, their success is drawing attention across the continent as the European university is increasingly perceived to lack the requisite flexibility and structures to accommodate the new realities of higher education in the 21st century. Meanwhile, the active, ongoing communication among LAS programmes through organizations like the European Consortium for Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS), the University Colleges Deans Network in the Netherlands and projects like the Erasmus+ Best Liberal Arts and Science Teaching Expanded and Reinforced (BLASTER) are providing important platforms for the role of LAS within the current European higher education reform movement. == '''Basic Bibliography''' == This bibliography is meant only to serve as a basic introduction to Liberal Arts and Sciences. In addition to the sources mentioned in the notes above, several other fundamental resources help to give a broad context to the nature of Liberal Arts and Sciences education and its current development. Articles Blaich Charles, Bost Anne, Chan Ed, Lynch, Richard, Defining Liberal Arts Education, Center of Inquiry, Wabash College, 2005. Becker, Jonathan, Liberal Arts and Sciences Education: Responding to the Challenges of the XXIst Century, available as pdf. Online at [https://vo.hse.ru/data/2016/02/05/1136171884/Bekker%20(2).pdf]. Schneider, Carol Geary and Shornberg, Robert, Contemporary Understandings of Liberal Education, Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2001. Van der Wende, Marjik, The Emergence of Liberal Arts and Sciences Education in Europe: A Comparative Perspective, Higher Education Policy, 24, pp. 233-253 Web sites Several web sites contain significant information on current trends in Liberal Arts and Sciences education. ECOLAS (European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences, [www.ecolas.eu]) provides up to date news and activities related to LAS in the European Union AACU (American Association of Colleges and Universities, [http://www.aacu.org]) provides information on recent studies on many aspects of LAS education including pedagogy, policy and quantitative measurements. The Center for Inquiry at Wabash College (U.S.) [http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu] is dedicated to research aimed at improving LAS education. Other ACA (Academic Cooperation Association) sponsored a conference called “Improving Undergraduate Education in Europe: Liberal Arts and Sciences Colleges in Europe. Proceeds of the conference including copies of presentations are available online at [http://www.aca-secretariat.be/index.php?id=752]. 0cd34c10e7b40f9d01ca29a59335e3de9510c109 52 51 2017-05-03T00:33:02Z Helen MacDermott 30449125 wikitext text/x-wiki The purpose of this Handbook is to provide an introduction to various aspects of the Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe to those for whom it is yet unfamiliar. It is also meant to provide an active resource to those institutions that currently identify themselves with LAS. The text is aimed at the widest possible audience to include educators, policy-makers, students and others interested in the evolution of undergraduate education in the European Higher Education Area. The Handbook is divided into three sections with a brief but fundamental bibliography of important resources at the end of each. The first section discusses the various elements that characterise a Liberal Arts and Sciences programme and the values that determine specific pedagogical methods and outcomes. A second section examines current models of liberal arts and sciences programmes by way of four case studies, comparing and contrasting their objectives and structures. A final section addresses the questions associated with the appropriate measure of evaluation to ensure high standards of quality in a liberal arts and sciences context. An augmented version of this Handbook may be found online at http://www.ecolas.eu/eng/. Here you will find links to additional information regarding the most important elements of our discussion. We trust that you will find this Handbook either a useful introduction or a welcome guide to the rapidly emerging world of the Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe. Preparation of this Manual was made possible by a Strategic Partnership Grant from Erasmus + titled “Best of Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe” (BLASTER). In addition to this work on characteristics and quality standards, BLASTER has also produced outcomes in the areas of teacher training-professional development and undergraduate research. For more on BLASTER, please consult the European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) website listed above. *Laurent Boetsch, Executive Director, European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) *Volker Balli, Academic Director, Leuphana Universitat, Luneburg *Lieke Schreel, Educational Director, Leiden University College, The Hague == '''Why Now?''' == The term “liberal arts” is certainly not new to Europe. For centuries, beginning with its origins in the Greco-Roman tradition and its evolution through the medieval period and the Renaissance, it defined higher education through its eventual organisation around the seven liberal arts of the Trivium (grammar, logic and rhetoric, the literary arts) and the Quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy, the mathematical arts). By focusing on the cultivation of wisdom through the nourishment of the soul by engagement with and mastery of these seven liberal arts, classical scholars meant to define the distinction between “education” and “training”. Such a distinction remains characteristic of the Liberal Arts and Sciences as we see them employed today. It is the habits of mind and modes of learning from the classical period that have lent themselves to the modern aims of LAS. The importance of critical thinking and assuming self-responsibility for one’s thoughts and the articulation of those thoughts, as well as the need to acquire an understanding of nature through the critical examination of all things, remain among the foundation stones of an LAS education. The shape and ethos of liberal education remained fundamentally unchanged until the 19th century. With the emergence of new university models in France and in Germany, however, attention was diverted to other aims. Napoleon’s grandes écoles gave primacy to the training for professions, while in Germany, the value of research within a strong disciplinary orientation in combination with Wilhelm von Humboldt’s concept of bildung became critical functions of the university. The 20th century, particularly during the post-World War II era, witnessed an important evolution in higher education owing primarily to increased access to the university, what some have termed its massification. The Bologna Process, whose basic premise is to provide a framework for university reform to meet the contemporary and future needs of evolving societies within the European Union, has been instrumental as a stimulus regarding new opportunities within the higher education sphere. As the original 1998 Sorbonne Joint Declaration on harmonization of the architecture of the European higher education system states: “An open area for higher learning carries a wealth of positive perspectives, of course respecting our diversities, but requires on the other hand continuous efforts to remove barriers and to develop a framework for teaching and learning which would enhance mobility and an ever closer cooperation.” (Sorbonne, 1) Within certain areas—most notably the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and, to some extent Germany—discussion of undergraduate education for the 21st century has included reform efforts led by the proponents of the Liberal Arts and Sciences. Their objectives aim to establish a comprehensive undergraduate degree that will prepare students both for continued study and/or successful professional careers. This particular designation, Liberal Arts and Sciences, includes not just the humanities and the social sciences readily associated with “liberal arts” but the natural sciences as well. It is this range of disciplines and the attention given to the interplay among them that persuades us that this is the kind of education necessary for student generations to meet the particular challenges of the 21st century. While many member states implemented the Bachelor/Master distinction, the recommendations of the Bologna Process are not prescriptive and the realisation of its objectives across the European Union has been uneven at best. Yet those objectives, refined in a series of subsequent Declarations, have provided a broad range of opportunities to rethink the options available to member states that seek reforms in their higher education systems. While the ministerial communiqués, the various Trend reports, the minutes of the Bologna Follow-Up groups or the various publications on education produced by the Bologna Process make scant direct reference to the Liberal Arts and Sciences, there is no doubt that the process has provided the impetus for a consideration of LAS as a viable alternative within European higher education and that several successful models have emerged. One of the most important features of the Bologna reform is the recommendation to divide the university degree into three separate cycles, the Bachelor, the Masters and the Ph.D. Institutions who take this division of degree cycles seriously have had to think carefully about exactly what constitutes an undergraduate (Bachelor) degree, what are its objectives, what should students be expected to learn, how might they best learn it and how might it be accurately evaluated. The emergence of interest in the Liberal Arts and Sciences derives precisely from this kind of assessment. Additional areas within the Bologna recommendations also support the growing interest in Liberal Arts and Sciences and its aims. One is the so-called “social dimension” of the process, generally understood as providing an education that is directed toward employability in the marketplace. But this is the narrowest understanding of the objective which is outlined in the London Communiqué of 2007 in much broader terms by stating that educational policy “should . . . maximize the potential of individuals in terms of their personal development and their contribution to a sustainable and democratic knowledge-based society.” This notion of one purpose of higher education to prepare its students for democratic citizenship is among the fundamental principles of a Liberal Arts and Sciences education. One notable outcome of the Bologna Reform is the emergence of an alternative to primarily content and research education toward a more student-centred education based on closer student/faculty relationships. Education centred on the student as learner and the various modes of learning available to make it most productive are critical to the LAS ethos. As a result of the response to the Bologna recommendations by those committed to the Liberal Arts and Sciences, a first-cycle or Bachelor degree aimed toward personal development in a knowledge-based society and characterised by student-centred learning provides a different way of thinking about undergraduate education. While Bologna provides a framework of opportunity for the Liberal Arts and Sciences, there are also cultural, economic, political and social trends that contribute to a consideration of LAS within the European context. The rapidly changing landscape of the challenges emerging for the 21st century demand that all nations examine closely the nature of the education of those whose task it will be to address and resolve those issues. Climate change, genetic engineering, the consequences of globalisation, the allocation of diminishing natural resources are all issues, among others, that share certain common characteristics and lend themselves to the ways in which those with an education in the Liberal Arts and Sciences typically address problems. So, for example, while we may be confident that these questions will ultimately be resolved, they are each long-term challenges for which much of the knowledge necessary for their resolution has yet to be produced. A student who is not inspired to a passion for lifelong learning or who does not understand how the content of her or his major specifically relates to other realms of knowledge, is not equipped to acquire or produce new knowledge in meaningful ways. That student will have little to contribute to a society that increasingly demands those attributes both in and outside the workplace. At our current pace, the information available for any one discipline is being doubled every seven years. The simple transfer of current knowledge from professor to student in the university within the framework of a narrow disciplinary organisation is wholly inadequate. If narrow specialisation will be insufficient in and of itself to address 21st century issues, what and how should university students be learning in order to be sufficiently prepared? Proponents of LAS would answer briefly that students need to acquire the skills that will allow them to recognize which questions to ask, where to look for their answers and how to express them clearly and intelligently. A brief summary of the most common characteristics of Liberal Arts and Sciences will help to demonstrate its appropriateness as an educational process that cultivates those skills and which deserves careful consideration within the overall university reform movement in Europe. == '''Creating a Framework for Liberal Arts and Sciences''' == An important aspect of the Liberal Arts and Sciences is that its implementation does not correspond to a single model. It defies a rigid definition because LAS is an ongoing process of education and it is precisely this flexibility in its nature that sometimes provokes its critics. Liberal Arts and Sciences education is most prevalent in the United States and some of its European critics contend that that tradition is a result of specific circumstances that do not apply to other parts of the world where culture, history and tradition have shaped different but equally appropriate approaches to higher learning. Yet we do a disservice to LAS education if we try to straightjacket it into a specific non-transferable format rather than examine the variety of ways that its characteristics can be integrated into any educational settings where there is the will to do so. There is no cultural bias that excludes good teaching, rigorous research to help inform that teaching, an effort to help students realise their full intellectual and personal potential and preparation in the kinds of skills appropriate to the world in which students will live and work, all of which are essential to the LAS ethos. While there must be a degree of flexibility in the development and evolution of an LAS programme, in order to create a proper framework, it is, nevertheless, necessary to distinguish those characteristics that ought to be present. These factors might appear in varying degrees, but there is general agreement that they provide the basic organisation of the Liberal Arts and Sciences. A recent survey of LAS colleges and programmes included in the European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) reveals both common, essential characteristics as well as diverse complementary aspects of LAS education that testify both to its specific nature and its flexibility. Each of the programmes and institutions responding include statements attesting to the following: a curriculum that offers a broad learning perspective, deep knowledge in one or more areas of academic interest to the student and a high level of intellectual and academic development expected in both proposed learning outcomes that demonstrate a commitment to highly developed cognitive skills including problem-solving, independent critical thought, the ability to work individually and collaboratively, oral and written communication skills knowledge across a range of disciplines the importance of citizenship and its responsibilities as one of the aims of an LAS education the cultivation of the skills, knowledge and passion for lifelong learning '''== Curricular breadth and depth ==''' This is the most visible characteristic of LAS and the one that sets it apart from the typical European approach to undergraduate education. Rather than having to choose a strict discipline upon entrance to the university, an LAS curriculum will allow students to explore a range of subjects, usually during the first year or, in the case of the United States, the first two years, before focusing on a particular major area of study. There are a variety of methods to providing this “breadth plus depth” approach, but the most successful are those that seek to give coherence to the breadth portion and flexibility to curricular depth. What is often termed “general education”, the breadth portion, should not be organized just to give students a sampling of different areas of knowledge but should have a specific purpose for their overall preparation. For instance, the courses may demonstrate various modes of thought or methodologies regarding the study of critical issues – how do scientists think, how do humanists approach ideas, how do quantitative resources contribute to problem solving, etc. These courses should, at the same time, introduce practice in and communication of the analytical and critical thinking skills that will be called upon for the successful completion of whichever major discipline a student may choose. With regard to curricular depth, it is important that there be an intentional refining and application of the skills introduced in the breadth portion of the curriculum to the work required in the concentrated depth sector. Those skills are often expressed in terms of specific course learning outcomes, which are, in turn, appropriately assessed and evaluated on an individual student basis. Increasingly and appropriate to the 21st century challenges indicated above, concentrated coursework in a particular discipline is complemented by courses that students are free to choose from related disciplines that provide additional perspective to their principal area of study. Contemporary “concentration” or “major” structures can be issue-, theme- or problem-oriented and, thus, based on more than one related field of study. This interdisciplinary approach to the major has found particular favour in a number of the new and emerging Liberal Arts and Sciences undergraduate degree programmes in the European Union. Another important expression of the skills that are the objectives of learning in LAS is realized in the opportunity for undergraduates to pursue research in their chosen area of concentration. The teaching of research methodologies, the mentoring of students engaged in research and the assessment of student research efforts are all part of the teaching responsibilities of faculty in LAS programmes, and independent research is often the requirement of “capstone” exercises, Bachelor Thesis or culminating projects within the major. The overall aim of the breadth and depth nexus and the various means to its implementation is to offer a rigorous, meaningful and ultimately practical approach to undergraduate education and provide students with the knowledge and the tools for success in continued study or in the workplace. == '''Learning Environment, Learning Outcomes, Essential Skills and Lifelong Learning''' == An LAS education is designed to foster certain skills to apply to disciplinary content in meaningful and practical ways. Approaches to learning within the LAS context attempt to guide students intentionally toward the essential skills that will prepare them for advanced studies, professional development and lifelong learning: critical thinking, problem solving, collaborative learning and oral and written communication. Critical thinking is associated with the capacity to form abstract concepts, integrate them into specific circumstances and provide some judgment or evaluation of their effectiveness, in other words, mastering how to go from theory to practice. Problem solving teaches students how to collect, analyse and evaluate evidence, and then how to apply such evidence to problem resolution either within the academic setting or as part of engaged co-curricular activity. While students are responsible for their own individual academic progress, through group projects and shared research activities, collaborative learning cultivates the attitudes and provides the opportunity for experience in the kind of work that is generally expected in the workplace. The accurate and authentic expression of ideas through oral and written communication is a constant exercise throughout the curriculum and provides students with the practice and discipline necessary for their mastery. The typical LAS learning environment, generally characterized as an intensive interactive environment, provides a number of avenues for students to learn and to apply these skills. Class discussions guided by the professor, projects outside the classroom, small group collaboration among students, individual and collaborative research, as well as frequent exercises in oral and written communication, are among the pedagogical practices that enable students to acquire these important skills before taking on advanced study or employment. This environment is most successful when structured on a small scale to allow frequent interaction between and among students and faculty. While small class sizes and low student/faculty ratios are ideal for creating such an environment, it is also possible to structure large classes in such a way as to implement some of these interactive aspects. For example, lecture sections can be divided into smaller groups for the purpose of discussion, writing assignments or oral presentations. One important goal of Liberal Arts and Sciences is to provide the skills and to promote the enthusiasm in students to pursue learning beyond the classroom, what is often referred to as “lifelong learning”. Many of the pedagogical tools employed in teaching within a Liberal Arts and Sciences environment reach beyond disciplinary content to instruct students on how to learn and to keep on learning. This particular capacity, while important for the workplace where the accumulation and application of new knowledge is essential for advancement also contributes to the enhancement of the quality of life, part of the active citizenship for which the Liberal Arts and Sciences prepare students. '''''Engaged citizenship''''' Preparation for engaged citizenship is perhaps the least well understood aspect of a Liberal Arts and Sciences education but may be the most significant in terms of its overall impact. While LAS does not overlook the importance of educating the individual, it also claims that its methods, aims and outcomes prepare students to be positive actors within a community dedicated to the cultivation and exercise of those principles that define a free, democratic society. This notion is not new to LAS, rather, it formed an essential part of its purpose from its very origins. The fields of study that defined the liberal arts in the ancient world—the Quadrivium and the Trivium—were thought to provide the essential skills and knowledge to give individuals the capacity to assume community responsibility. The focus on intellectual development and curiosity, thinking critically and communicating effectively aimed and continues to aim at educating citizens willing to sustain the common good in a civic society. This is one of the areas where the purpose of an LAS education separates from the goal of simply training students for employment in the workplace. While the oft-mentioned skills of critical thinking, effective communication and problem-solving should be an essential element in the learning outcomes of specific courses, in the current LAS environment much of the refining of those skills takes place outside the classroom. Participation in student organizations, study abroad, community service, internships, volunteer work, work-study programmes and related opportunities provide students with the means to contribute actively to society at large and to learn the importance of community engagement. This is what is meant when defenders of LAS speak of educating “the whole person”. Course content is just one aspect of many that make up the overall fabric of an LAS education. It is the critical blending of each of these curricular and co-curricular elements that ultimately distinguish an LAS graduate. In sum, a basic framework for a Liberal Arts and Sciences programme will include the following: vAn institutional ethos committed to the goals and objectives of LAS *Learning outcomes that stress particular skills for lifelong education to include critical and analytical thinking, oral and written communication, collaborative learning and problem-solving *Curricular and co-curricular opportunities to apply learning skills to civic and community issues to allow students to acquire a civic consciousness *Appropriate strategies for assessment and evaluation that ensure the success of proposed learning outcomes Yet the framework is not enough to ensure that students will, in fact, experience the benefits of an LAS education. In order to successfully implement its objectives and goals, the key factor in providing an education that will realize its aims is the nature and the quality of the teaching to which students are exposed. == '''Teaching Practices at the Heart of an LAS Education''' == Teaching in a Liberal Arts and Sciences environment requires a strong commitment to its principles and a willingness to work towards excellence in teaching as a vital aspect of one’s professional development. It must be noted, however, that an essential component of good teaching in LAS is a serious dedication to ongoing scholarly activity and research. This balance between teaching and research that can help to inform teaching is critical to ensuring the success of an LAS curriculum and it is important for an LAS institution to provide faculty the resources necessary for its ongoing development. Without faculty who demonstrate the same characteristics of curiosity, problem-solving and lifelong learning that they are charged with inspiring in their students, the framework that we have just described becomes nothing more than a sterile organizational structure. The main teaching challenge for faculty in LAS programmes is how to create and sustain an interactive classroom environment that will engage students in such a way as to develop the cognitive skills that characterize LAS and, at the same time, guide them toward mastering course content. Preparation begins with the course syllabus which, in addition to listing assignments to be prepared for each class, should also include: learning outcomes for the course consistent with those of the overall curriculum, a description of the kinds of activities—group projects, oral presentations, out-of-class lectures or talks, etc.—for which students will be held responsible and an explanation of how student performance will be evaluated. In general, the faculty member leading an LAS class will act primarily as a guide, helping students to make their own discoveries about the course material, articulate those discoveries accurately and put them forward to be tested by both faculty and their student peers. While traditional lectures can remain a part of the classroom, leading class discussion, overseeing work in small groups, effectively evaluating students on an ongoing basis and developing the kind of faculty-student relationship that inspires confidence are among the necessary skills for an LAS instructor. These are learnable skills that should be periodically revised and refined through active engagement in professional development. Teaching in an LAS environment should be a subject for discussion among faculty who share together their successes and failures in the classroom in order to consistently improve classroom performance. A recent study conducted for the American Council on Education focuses on instruction and student outcomes and demonstrates the importance of the quality of instruction in helping students to attain targeted outcomes. The study lists five essential faculty practices to ensure successful student learning and can be summarized as follows: *Transparency: Students must have a clear understanding of where they are going, as well as the criteria by which they will be assessed. *Pedagogical approaches: Personalized instruction and active learning are among the most successful approaches for student-centred learning. *Assessment: Supportive learning environments that assess learning only at the end of a course are insufficient. Students need feedback along the way as they engage in multiple opportunities to practice learning. *Self-regulation: A necessary aspect of good teaching practice is to ensure that students be active learners, not just passive recipients in the learning process. *Alignment: Learning environments are most successful when there is a clearly organised coherence among its various elements so that student learning does not become fragmented. One of the ongoing difficulties for proponents of LAS has been the challenge to quantify its claims for producing positive outcomes in cognitive growth and the role that good teaching plays in that process. It is much easier to measure content knowledge through traditional testing methods than it is to assess gains in areas such as critical thinking, problem-solving, communication skills or a capacity for lifelong learning. However, recent studies in the United States have produced results that appear to confirm significant cognitive growth in LAS settings during the course of the undergraduate experience based on the quality of teaching. Among some of the important conclusions of these studies are: 1) that clear and well-organized instruction fosters the acquisition of course knowledge but also adds to student cognitive growth and 2) “deep learning” experiences have clear, positive impacts on growth in critical thinking skills and moral reasoning. Comparing the institutional results, it is demonstrated that while students exposed to clear and organized instruction and deep learning experiences in any institutional setting showed positive cognitive outcomes, “(r)elative to their peers at both research universities and regional institutions, liberal arts college students realized significant advantages on both their critical-thinking skills and their need for cognition that were attributable to exposure to higher levels of instructional clarity and organization and more frequent deep-learning experiences”. This then is the sum of our introduction: Liberal Arts and Sciences is a viable approach toward learning that provides students with the skills and competencies they require for advanced study, for productive professional careers and for meaningful lives, especially in the 21st century. It requires a certain framework within which to flourish but that framework is flexible and relies as much on process as on structure. Finally, it demands well-prepared, active teaching in order to realize the full measure of its objectives. Our next two chapters will focus on current European models of LAS institutions and the ways by which this type of learning can be effectively assessed and evaluated. While the number of LAS colleges and programmes in the European Higher Education Area remain few, their success is drawing attention across the continent as the European university is increasingly perceived to lack the requisite flexibility and structures to accommodate the new realities of higher education in the 21st century. Meanwhile, the active, ongoing communication among LAS programmes through organizations like the European Consortium for Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS), the University Colleges Deans Network in the Netherlands and projects like the Erasmus+ Best Liberal Arts and Science Teaching Expanded and Reinforced (BLASTER) are providing important platforms for the role of LAS within the current European higher education reform movement. == '''Basic Bibliography''' == This bibliography is meant only to serve as a basic introduction to Liberal Arts and Sciences. In addition to the sources mentioned in the notes above, several other fundamental resources help to give a broad context to the nature of Liberal Arts and Sciences education and its current development. '''''Articles''''' Blaich Charles, Bost Anne, Chan Ed, Lynch, Richard, Defining Liberal Arts Education, Center of Inquiry, Wabash College, 2005. Becker, Jonathan, Liberal Arts and Sciences Education: Responding to the Challenges of the XXIst Century, available as pdf. Online at [https://vo.hse.ru/data/2016/02/05/1136171884/Bekker%20(2).pdf]. Schneider, Carol Geary and Shornberg, Robert, Contemporary Understandings of Liberal Education, Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2001. Van der Wende, Marjik, The Emergence of Liberal Arts and Sciences Education in Europe: A Comparative Perspective, Higher Education Policy, 24, pp. 233-253 '''''Web sites''''' Several web sites contain significant information on current trends in Liberal Arts and Sciences education. ECOLAS (European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences, [www.ecolas.eu]) provides up to date news and activities related to LAS in the European Union AACU (American Association of Colleges and Universities, [http://www.aacu.org]) provides information on recent studies on many aspects of LAS education including pedagogy, policy and quantitative measurements. The Center for Inquiry at Wabash College (U.S.) [http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu] is dedicated to research aimed at improving LAS education. '''''Other''''' ACA (Academic Cooperation Association) sponsored a conference called “Improving Undergraduate Education in Europe: Liberal Arts and Sciences Colleges in Europe. Proceeds of the conference including copies of presentations are available online at [http://www.aca-secretariat.be/index.php?id=752]. 6e7336dfc3fb9201a56c940c6e1984008d71f6a2 56 52 2017-05-03T18:15:52Z Helen MacDermott 30449125 wikitext text/x-wiki The purpose of this Handbook is to provide an introduction to various aspects of the Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe to those for whom it is yet unfamiliar. It is also meant to provide an active resource to those institutions that currently identify themselves with LAS. The text is aimed at the widest possible audience to include educators, policy-makers, students and others interested in the evolution of undergraduate education in the European Higher Education Area. The Handbook is divided into three sections with a brief but fundamental bibliography of important resources at the end of each. The first section discusses the various elements that characterise a Liberal Arts and Sciences programme and the values that determine specific pedagogical methods and outcomes. A second section examines current models of liberal arts and sciences programmes by way of four case studies, comparing and contrasting their objectives and structures. A final section addresses the questions associated with the appropriate measure of evaluation to ensure high standards of quality in a liberal arts and sciences context. An augmented version of this Handbook may be found online at http://www.ecolas.eu/eng/. Here you will find links to additional information regarding the most important elements of our discussion. We trust that you will find this Handbook either a useful introduction or a welcome guide to the rapidly emerging world of the Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe. Preparation of this Manual was made possible by a Strategic Partnership Grant from Erasmus + titled “Best of Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe” (BLASTER). In addition to this work on characteristics and quality standards, [[File:BLASTER]] has also produced outcomes in the areas of teacher training-professional development and undergraduate research. For more on BLASTER, please consult the European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) website listed above. *Laurent Boetsch, Executive Director, European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) *Volker Balli, Academic Director, Leuphana Universitat, Luneburg *Lieke Schreel, Educational Director, Leiden University College, The Hague == '''Why Now?''' == The term “liberal arts” is certainly not new to Europe. For centuries, beginning with its origins in the Greco-Roman tradition and its evolution through the medieval period and the Renaissance, it defined higher education through its eventual organisation around the seven liberal arts of the Trivium (grammar, logic and rhetoric, the literary arts) and the Quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy, the mathematical arts). By focusing on the cultivation of wisdom through the nourishment of the soul by engagement with and mastery of these seven liberal arts, classical scholars meant to define the distinction between “education” and “training”. Such a distinction remains characteristic of the Liberal Arts and Sciences as we see them employed today. It is the habits of mind and modes of learning from the classical period that have lent themselves to the modern aims of LAS. The importance of critical thinking and assuming self-responsibility for one’s thoughts and the articulation of those thoughts, as well as the need to acquire an understanding of nature through the critical examination of all things, remain among the foundation stones of an LAS education. The shape and ethos of liberal education remained fundamentally unchanged until the 19th century. With the emergence of new university models in France and in Germany, however, attention was diverted to other aims. Napoleon’s grandes écoles gave primacy to the training for professions, while in Germany, the value of research within a strong disciplinary orientation in combination with Wilhelm von Humboldt’s concept of bildung became critical functions of the university. The 20th century, particularly during the post-World War II era, witnessed an important evolution in higher education owing primarily to increased access to the university, what some have termed its massification. The Bologna Process, whose basic premise is to provide a framework for university reform to meet the contemporary and future needs of evolving societies within the European Union, has been instrumental as a stimulus regarding new opportunities within the higher education sphere. As the original 1998 Sorbonne Joint Declaration on harmonization of the architecture of the European higher education system states: “An open area for higher learning carries a wealth of positive perspectives, of course respecting our diversities, but requires on the other hand continuous efforts to remove barriers and to develop a framework for teaching and learning which would enhance mobility and an ever closer cooperation.” (Sorbonne, 1) Within certain areas—most notably the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and, to some extent Germany—discussion of undergraduate education for the 21st century has included reform efforts led by the proponents of the Liberal Arts and Sciences. Their objectives aim to establish a comprehensive undergraduate degree that will prepare students both for continued study and/or successful professional careers. This particular designation, Liberal Arts and Sciences, includes not just the humanities and the social sciences readily associated with “liberal arts” but the natural sciences as well. It is this range of disciplines and the attention given to the interplay among them that persuades us that this is the kind of education necessary for student generations to meet the particular challenges of the 21st century. While many member states implemented the Bachelor/Master distinction, the recommendations of the Bologna Process are not prescriptive and the realisation of its objectives across the European Union has been uneven at best. Yet those objectives, refined in a series of subsequent Declarations, have provided a broad range of opportunities to rethink the options available to member states that seek reforms in their higher education systems. While the ministerial communiqués, the various Trend reports, the minutes of the Bologna Follow-Up groups or the various publications on education produced by the Bologna Process make scant direct reference to the Liberal Arts and Sciences, there is no doubt that the process has provided the impetus for a consideration of LAS as a viable alternative within European higher education and that several successful models have emerged. One of the most important features of the Bologna reform is the recommendation to divide the university degree into three separate cycles, the Bachelor, the Masters and the Ph.D. Institutions who take this division of degree cycles seriously have had to think carefully about exactly what constitutes an undergraduate (Bachelor) degree, what are its objectives, what should students be expected to learn, how might they best learn it and how might it be accurately evaluated. The emergence of interest in the Liberal Arts and Sciences derives precisely from this kind of assessment. Additional areas within the Bologna recommendations also support the growing interest in Liberal Arts and Sciences and its aims. One is the so-called “social dimension” of the process, generally understood as providing an education that is directed toward employability in the marketplace. But this is the narrowest understanding of the objective which is outlined in the London Communiqué of 2007 in much broader terms by stating that educational policy “should . . . maximize the potential of individuals in terms of their personal development and their contribution to a sustainable and democratic knowledge-based society.” This notion of one purpose of higher education to prepare its students for democratic citizenship is among the fundamental principles of a Liberal Arts and Sciences education. One notable outcome of the Bologna Reform is the emergence of an alternative to primarily content and research education toward a more student-centred education based on closer student/faculty relationships. Education centred on the student as learner and the various modes of learning available to make it most productive are critical to the LAS ethos. As a result of the response to the Bologna recommendations by those committed to the Liberal Arts and Sciences, a first-cycle or Bachelor degree aimed toward personal development in a knowledge-based society and characterised by student-centred learning provides a different way of thinking about undergraduate education. While Bologna provides a framework of opportunity for the Liberal Arts and Sciences, there are also cultural, economic, political and social trends that contribute to a consideration of LAS within the European context. The rapidly changing landscape of the challenges emerging for the 21st century demand that all nations examine closely the nature of the education of those whose task it will be to address and resolve those issues. Climate change, genetic engineering, the consequences of globalisation, the allocation of diminishing natural resources are all issues, among others, that share certain common characteristics and lend themselves to the ways in which those with an education in the Liberal Arts and Sciences typically address problems. So, for example, while we may be confident that these questions will ultimately be resolved, they are each long-term challenges for which much of the knowledge necessary for their resolution has yet to be produced. A student who is not inspired to a passion for lifelong learning or who does not understand how the content of her or his major specifically relates to other realms of knowledge, is not equipped to acquire or produce new knowledge in meaningful ways. That student will have little to contribute to a society that increasingly demands those attributes both in and outside the workplace. At our current pace, the information available for any one discipline is being doubled every seven years. The simple transfer of current knowledge from professor to student in the university within the framework of a narrow disciplinary organisation is wholly inadequate. If narrow specialisation will be insufficient in and of itself to address 21st century issues, what and how should university students be learning in order to be sufficiently prepared? Proponents of LAS would answer briefly that students need to acquire the skills that will allow them to recognize which questions to ask, where to look for their answers and how to express them clearly and intelligently. A brief summary of the most common characteristics of Liberal Arts and Sciences will help to demonstrate its appropriateness as an educational process that cultivates those skills and which deserves careful consideration within the overall university reform movement in Europe. == '''Creating a Framework for Liberal Arts and Sciences''' == An important aspect of the Liberal Arts and Sciences is that its implementation does not correspond to a single model. It defies a rigid definition because LAS is an ongoing process of education and it is precisely this flexibility in its nature that sometimes provokes its critics. Liberal Arts and Sciences education is most prevalent in the United States and some of its European critics contend that that tradition is a result of specific circumstances that do not apply to other parts of the world where culture, history and tradition have shaped different but equally appropriate approaches to higher learning. Yet we do a disservice to LAS education if we try to straightjacket it into a specific non-transferable format rather than examine the variety of ways that its characteristics can be integrated into any educational settings where there is the will to do so. There is no cultural bias that excludes good teaching, rigorous research to help inform that teaching, an effort to help students realise their full intellectual and personal potential and preparation in the kinds of skills appropriate to the world in which students will live and work, all of which are essential to the LAS ethos. While there must be a degree of flexibility in the development and evolution of an LAS programme, in order to create a proper framework, it is, nevertheless, necessary to distinguish those characteristics that ought to be present. These factors might appear in varying degrees, but there is general agreement that they provide the basic organisation of the Liberal Arts and Sciences. A recent survey of LAS colleges and programmes included in the European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) reveals both common, essential characteristics as well as diverse complementary aspects of LAS education that testify both to its specific nature and its flexibility. Each of the programmes and institutions responding include statements attesting to the following: a curriculum that offers a broad learning perspective, deep knowledge in one or more areas of academic interest to the student and a high level of intellectual and academic development expected in both proposed learning outcomes that demonstrate a commitment to highly developed cognitive skills including problem-solving, independent critical thought, the ability to work individually and collaboratively, oral and written communication skills knowledge across a range of disciplines the importance of citizenship and its responsibilities as one of the aims of an LAS education the cultivation of the skills, knowledge and passion for lifelong learning '''== Curricular breadth and depth ==''' This is the most visible characteristic of LAS and the one that sets it apart from the typical European approach to undergraduate education. Rather than having to choose a strict discipline upon entrance to the university, an LAS curriculum will allow students to explore a range of subjects, usually during the first year or, in the case of the United States, the first two years, before focusing on a particular major area of study. There are a variety of methods to providing this “breadth plus depth” approach, but the most successful are those that seek to give coherence to the breadth portion and flexibility to curricular depth. What is often termed “general education”, the breadth portion, should not be organized just to give students a sampling of different areas of knowledge but should have a specific purpose for their overall preparation. For instance, the courses may demonstrate various modes of thought or methodologies regarding the study of critical issues – how do scientists think, how do humanists approach ideas, how do quantitative resources contribute to problem solving, etc. These courses should, at the same time, introduce practice in and communication of the analytical and critical thinking skills that will be called upon for the successful completion of whichever major discipline a student may choose. With regard to curricular depth, it is important that there be an intentional refining and application of the skills introduced in the breadth portion of the curriculum to the work required in the concentrated depth sector. Those skills are often expressed in terms of specific course learning outcomes, which are, in turn, appropriately assessed and evaluated on an individual student basis. Increasingly and appropriate to the 21st century challenges indicated above, concentrated coursework in a particular discipline is complemented by courses that students are free to choose from related disciplines that provide additional perspective to their principal area of study. Contemporary “concentration” or “major” structures can be issue-, theme- or problem-oriented and, thus, based on more than one related field of study. This interdisciplinary approach to the major has found particular favour in a number of the new and emerging Liberal Arts and Sciences undergraduate degree programmes in the European Union. Another important expression of the skills that are the objectives of learning in LAS is realized in the opportunity for undergraduates to pursue research in their chosen area of concentration. The teaching of research methodologies, the mentoring of students engaged in research and the assessment of student research efforts are all part of the teaching responsibilities of faculty in LAS programmes, and independent research is often the requirement of “capstone” exercises, Bachelor Thesis or culminating projects within the major. The overall aim of the breadth and depth nexus and the various means to its implementation is to offer a rigorous, meaningful and ultimately practical approach to undergraduate education and provide students with the knowledge and the tools for success in continued study or in the workplace. == '''Learning Environment, Learning Outcomes, Essential Skills and Lifelong Learning''' == An LAS education is designed to foster certain skills to apply to disciplinary content in meaningful and practical ways. Approaches to learning within the LAS context attempt to guide students intentionally toward the essential skills that will prepare them for advanced studies, professional development and lifelong learning: critical thinking, problem solving, collaborative learning and oral and written communication. Critical thinking is associated with the capacity to form abstract concepts, integrate them into specific circumstances and provide some judgment or evaluation of their effectiveness, in other words, mastering how to go from theory to practice. Problem solving teaches students how to collect, analyse and evaluate evidence, and then how to apply such evidence to problem resolution either within the academic setting or as part of engaged co-curricular activity. While students are responsible for their own individual academic progress, through group projects and shared research activities, collaborative learning cultivates the attitudes and provides the opportunity for experience in the kind of work that is generally expected in the workplace. The accurate and authentic expression of ideas through oral and written communication is a constant exercise throughout the curriculum and provides students with the practice and discipline necessary for their mastery. The typical LAS learning environment, generally characterized as an intensive interactive environment, provides a number of avenues for students to learn and to apply these skills. Class discussions guided by the professor, projects outside the classroom, small group collaboration among students, individual and collaborative research, as well as frequent exercises in oral and written communication, are among the pedagogical practices that enable students to acquire these important skills before taking on advanced study or employment. This environment is most successful when structured on a small scale to allow frequent interaction between and among students and faculty. While small class sizes and low student/faculty ratios are ideal for creating such an environment, it is also possible to structure large classes in such a way as to implement some of these interactive aspects. For example, lecture sections can be divided into smaller groups for the purpose of discussion, writing assignments or oral presentations. One important goal of Liberal Arts and Sciences is to provide the skills and to promote the enthusiasm in students to pursue learning beyond the classroom, what is often referred to as “lifelong learning”. Many of the pedagogical tools employed in teaching within a Liberal Arts and Sciences environment reach beyond disciplinary content to instruct students on how to learn and to keep on learning. This particular capacity, while important for the workplace where the accumulation and application of new knowledge is essential for advancement also contributes to the enhancement of the quality of life, part of the active citizenship for which the Liberal Arts and Sciences prepare students. '''''Engaged citizenship''''' Preparation for engaged citizenship is perhaps the least well understood aspect of a Liberal Arts and Sciences education but may be the most significant in terms of its overall impact. While LAS does not overlook the importance of educating the individual, it also claims that its methods, aims and outcomes prepare students to be positive actors within a community dedicated to the cultivation and exercise of those principles that define a free, democratic society. This notion is not new to LAS, rather, it formed an essential part of its purpose from its very origins. The fields of study that defined the liberal arts in the ancient world—the Quadrivium and the Trivium—were thought to provide the essential skills and knowledge to give individuals the capacity to assume community responsibility. The focus on intellectual development and curiosity, thinking critically and communicating effectively aimed and continues to aim at educating citizens willing to sustain the common good in a civic society. This is one of the areas where the purpose of an LAS education separates from the goal of simply training students for employment in the workplace. While the oft-mentioned skills of critical thinking, effective communication and problem-solving should be an essential element in the learning outcomes of specific courses, in the current LAS environment much of the refining of those skills takes place outside the classroom. Participation in student organizations, study abroad, community service, internships, volunteer work, work-study programmes and related opportunities provide students with the means to contribute actively to society at large and to learn the importance of community engagement. This is what is meant when defenders of LAS speak of educating “the whole person”. Course content is just one aspect of many that make up the overall fabric of an LAS education. It is the critical blending of each of these curricular and co-curricular elements that ultimately distinguish an LAS graduate. In sum, a basic framework for a Liberal Arts and Sciences programme will include the following: vAn institutional ethos committed to the goals and objectives of LAS *Learning outcomes that stress particular skills for lifelong education to include critical and analytical thinking, oral and written communication, collaborative learning and problem-solving *Curricular and co-curricular opportunities to apply learning skills to civic and community issues to allow students to acquire a civic consciousness *Appropriate strategies for assessment and evaluation that ensure the success of proposed learning outcomes Yet the framework is not enough to ensure that students will, in fact, experience the benefits of an LAS education. In order to successfully implement its objectives and goals, the key factor in providing an education that will realize its aims is the nature and the quality of the teaching to which students are exposed. == '''Teaching Practices at the Heart of an LAS Education''' == Teaching in a Liberal Arts and Sciences environment requires a strong commitment to its principles and a willingness to work towards excellence in teaching as a vital aspect of one’s professional development. It must be noted, however, that an essential component of good teaching in LAS is a serious dedication to ongoing scholarly activity and research. This balance between teaching and research that can help to inform teaching is critical to ensuring the success of an LAS curriculum and it is important for an LAS institution to provide faculty the resources necessary for its ongoing development. Without faculty who demonstrate the same characteristics of curiosity, problem-solving and lifelong learning that they are charged with inspiring in their students, the framework that we have just described becomes nothing more than a sterile organizational structure. The main teaching challenge for faculty in LAS programmes is how to create and sustain an interactive classroom environment that will engage students in such a way as to develop the cognitive skills that characterize LAS and, at the same time, guide them toward mastering course content. Preparation begins with the course syllabus which, in addition to listing assignments to be prepared for each class, should also include: learning outcomes for the course consistent with those of the overall curriculum, a description of the kinds of activities—group projects, oral presentations, out-of-class lectures or talks, etc.—for which students will be held responsible and an explanation of how student performance will be evaluated. In general, the faculty member leading an LAS class will act primarily as a guide, helping students to make their own discoveries about the course material, articulate those discoveries accurately and put them forward to be tested by both faculty and their student peers. While traditional lectures can remain a part of the classroom, leading class discussion, overseeing work in small groups, effectively evaluating students on an ongoing basis and developing the kind of faculty-student relationship that inspires confidence are among the necessary skills for an LAS instructor. These are learnable skills that should be periodically revised and refined through active engagement in professional development. Teaching in an LAS environment should be a subject for discussion among faculty who share together their successes and failures in the classroom in order to consistently improve classroom performance. A recent study conducted for the American Council on Education focuses on instruction and student outcomes and demonstrates the importance of the quality of instruction in helping students to attain targeted outcomes. The study lists five essential faculty practices to ensure successful student learning and can be summarized as follows: *Transparency: Students must have a clear understanding of where they are going, as well as the criteria by which they will be assessed. *Pedagogical approaches: Personalized instruction and active learning are among the most successful approaches for student-centred learning. *Assessment: Supportive learning environments that assess learning only at the end of a course are insufficient. Students need feedback along the way as they engage in multiple opportunities to practice learning. *Self-regulation: A necessary aspect of good teaching practice is to ensure that students be active learners, not just passive recipients in the learning process. *Alignment: Learning environments are most successful when there is a clearly organised coherence among its various elements so that student learning does not become fragmented. One of the ongoing difficulties for proponents of LAS has been the challenge to quantify its claims for producing positive outcomes in cognitive growth and the role that good teaching plays in that process. It is much easier to measure content knowledge through traditional testing methods than it is to assess gains in areas such as critical thinking, problem-solving, communication skills or a capacity for lifelong learning. However, recent studies in the United States have produced results that appear to confirm significant cognitive growth in LAS settings during the course of the undergraduate experience based on the quality of teaching. Among some of the important conclusions of these studies are: 1) that clear and well-organized instruction fosters the acquisition of course knowledge but also adds to student cognitive growth and 2) “deep learning” experiences have clear, positive impacts on growth in critical thinking skills and moral reasoning. Comparing the institutional results, it is demonstrated that while students exposed to clear and organized instruction and deep learning experiences in any institutional setting showed positive cognitive outcomes, “(r)elative to their peers at both research universities and regional institutions, liberal arts college students realized significant advantages on both their critical-thinking skills and their need for cognition that were attributable to exposure to higher levels of instructional clarity and organization and more frequent deep-learning experiences”. This then is the sum of our introduction: Liberal Arts and Sciences is a viable approach toward learning that provides students with the skills and competencies they require for advanced study, for productive professional careers and for meaningful lives, especially in the 21st century. It requires a certain framework within which to flourish but that framework is flexible and relies as much on process as on structure. Finally, it demands well-prepared, active teaching in order to realize the full measure of its objectives. Our next two chapters will focus on current European models of LAS institutions and the ways by which this type of learning can be effectively assessed and evaluated. While the number of LAS colleges and programmes in the European Higher Education Area remain few, their success is drawing attention across the continent as the European university is increasingly perceived to lack the requisite flexibility and structures to accommodate the new realities of higher education in the 21st century. Meanwhile, the active, ongoing communication among LAS programmes through organizations like the European Consortium for Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS), the University Colleges Deans Network in the Netherlands and projects like the Erasmus+ Best Liberal Arts and Science Teaching Expanded and Reinforced (BLASTER) are providing important platforms for the role of LAS within the current European higher education reform movement. == '''Basic Bibliography''' == This bibliography is meant only to serve as a basic introduction to Liberal Arts and Sciences. In addition to the sources mentioned in the notes above, several other fundamental resources help to give a broad context to the nature of Liberal Arts and Sciences education and its current development. '''''Articles''''' Blaich Charles, Bost Anne, Chan Ed, Lynch, Richard, Defining Liberal Arts Education, Center of Inquiry, Wabash College, 2005. Becker, Jonathan, Liberal Arts and Sciences Education: Responding to the Challenges of the XXIst Century, available as pdf. Online at [https://vo.hse.ru/data/2016/02/05/1136171884/Bekker%20(2).pdf]. Schneider, Carol Geary and Shornberg, Robert, Contemporary Understandings of Liberal Education, Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2001. Van der Wende, Marjik, The Emergence of Liberal Arts and Sciences Education in Europe: A Comparative Perspective, Higher Education Policy, 24, pp. 233-253 '''''Web sites''''' Several web sites contain significant information on current trends in Liberal Arts and Sciences education. ECOLAS (European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences, [www.ecolas.eu]) provides up to date news and activities related to LAS in the European Union AACU (American Association of Colleges and Universities, [http://www.aacu.org]) provides information on recent studies on many aspects of LAS education including pedagogy, policy and quantitative measurements. The Center for Inquiry at Wabash College (U.S.) [http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu] is dedicated to research aimed at improving LAS education. '''''Other''''' ACA (Academic Cooperation Association) sponsored a conference called “Improving Undergraduate Education in Europe: Liberal Arts and Sciences Colleges in Europe. Proceeds of the conference including copies of presentations are available online at [http://www.aca-secretariat.be/index.php?id=752]. ba1fe9ae7f969c23207e0f25fbbf7504a7a7ca11 57 56 2017-05-03T18:19:36Z Helen MacDermott 30449125 wikitext text/x-wiki The purpose of this Handbook is to provide an introduction to various aspects of the Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe to those for whom it is yet unfamiliar. It is also meant to provide an active resource to those institutions that currently identify themselves with LAS. The text is aimed at the widest possible audience to include educators, policy-makers, students and others interested in the evolution of undergraduate education in the European Higher Education Area. The Handbook is divided into three sections with a brief but fundamental bibliography of important resources at the end of each. The first section discusses the various elements that characterise a Liberal Arts and Sciences programme and the values that determine specific pedagogical methods and outcomes. A second section examines current models of liberal arts and sciences programmes by way of four case studies, comparing and contrasting their objectives and structures. A final section addresses the questions associated with the appropriate measure of evaluation to ensure high standards of quality in a liberal arts and sciences context. An augmented version of this Handbook may be found online at http://www.ecolas.eu/eng/. Here you will find links to additional information regarding the most important elements of our discussion. We trust that you will find this Handbook either a useful introduction or a welcome guide to the rapidly emerging world of the Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe. Preparation of this Manual was made possible by a Strategic Partnership Grant from Erasmus + titled “Best of Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe” (BLASTER). In addition to this work on characteristics and quality standards, [[File:BLASTER.pdf]] has also produced outcomes in the areas of teacher training-professional development and undergraduate research. For more on BLASTER, please consult the European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) website listed above. *Laurent Boetsch, Executive Director, European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) *Volker Balli, Academic Director, Leuphana Universitat, Luneburg *Lieke Schreel, Educational Director, Leiden University College, The Hague == '''Why Now?''' == The term “liberal arts” is certainly not new to Europe. For centuries, beginning with its origins in the Greco-Roman tradition and its evolution through the medieval period and the Renaissance, it defined higher education through its eventual organisation around the seven liberal arts of the Trivium (grammar, logic and rhetoric, the literary arts) and the Quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy, the mathematical arts). By focusing on the cultivation of wisdom through the nourishment of the soul by engagement with and mastery of these seven liberal arts, classical scholars meant to define the distinction between “education” and “training”. Such a distinction remains characteristic of the Liberal Arts and Sciences as we see them employed today. It is the habits of mind and modes of learning from the classical period that have lent themselves to the modern aims of LAS. The importance of critical thinking and assuming self-responsibility for one’s thoughts and the articulation of those thoughts, as well as the need to acquire an understanding of nature through the critical examination of all things, remain among the foundation stones of an LAS education. The shape and ethos of liberal education remained fundamentally unchanged until the 19th century. With the emergence of new university models in France and in Germany, however, attention was diverted to other aims. Napoleon’s grandes écoles gave primacy to the training for professions, while in Germany, the value of research within a strong disciplinary orientation in combination with Wilhelm von Humboldt’s concept of bildung became critical functions of the university. The 20th century, particularly during the post-World War II era, witnessed an important evolution in higher education owing primarily to increased access to the university, what some have termed its massification. The Bologna Process, whose basic premise is to provide a framework for university reform to meet the contemporary and future needs of evolving societies within the European Union, has been instrumental as a stimulus regarding new opportunities within the higher education sphere. As the original 1998 Sorbonne Joint Declaration on harmonization of the architecture of the European higher education system states: “An open area for higher learning carries a wealth of positive perspectives, of course respecting our diversities, but requires on the other hand continuous efforts to remove barriers and to develop a framework for teaching and learning which would enhance mobility and an ever closer cooperation.” (Sorbonne, 1) Within certain areas—most notably the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and, to some extent Germany—discussion of undergraduate education for the 21st century has included reform efforts led by the proponents of the Liberal Arts and Sciences. Their objectives aim to establish a comprehensive undergraduate degree that will prepare students both for continued study and/or successful professional careers. This particular designation, Liberal Arts and Sciences, includes not just the humanities and the social sciences readily associated with “liberal arts” but the natural sciences as well. It is this range of disciplines and the attention given to the interplay among them that persuades us that this is the kind of education necessary for student generations to meet the particular challenges of the 21st century. While many member states implemented the Bachelor/Master distinction, the recommendations of the Bologna Process are not prescriptive and the realisation of its objectives across the European Union has been uneven at best. Yet those objectives, refined in a series of subsequent Declarations, have provided a broad range of opportunities to rethink the options available to member states that seek reforms in their higher education systems. While the ministerial communiqués, the various Trend reports, the minutes of the Bologna Follow-Up groups or the various publications on education produced by the Bologna Process make scant direct reference to the Liberal Arts and Sciences, there is no doubt that the process has provided the impetus for a consideration of LAS as a viable alternative within European higher education and that several successful models have emerged. One of the most important features of the Bologna reform is the recommendation to divide the university degree into three separate cycles, the Bachelor, the Masters and the Ph.D. Institutions who take this division of degree cycles seriously have had to think carefully about exactly what constitutes an undergraduate (Bachelor) degree, what are its objectives, what should students be expected to learn, how might they best learn it and how might it be accurately evaluated. The emergence of interest in the Liberal Arts and Sciences derives precisely from this kind of assessment. Additional areas within the Bologna recommendations also support the growing interest in Liberal Arts and Sciences and its aims. One is the so-called “social dimension” of the process, generally understood as providing an education that is directed toward employability in the marketplace. But this is the narrowest understanding of the objective which is outlined in the London Communiqué of 2007 in much broader terms by stating that educational policy “should . . . maximize the potential of individuals in terms of their personal development and their contribution to a sustainable and democratic knowledge-based society.” This notion of one purpose of higher education to prepare its students for democratic citizenship is among the fundamental principles of a Liberal Arts and Sciences education. One notable outcome of the Bologna Reform is the emergence of an alternative to primarily content and research education toward a more student-centred education based on closer student/faculty relationships. Education centred on the student as learner and the various modes of learning available to make it most productive are critical to the LAS ethos. As a result of the response to the Bologna recommendations by those committed to the Liberal Arts and Sciences, a first-cycle or Bachelor degree aimed toward personal development in a knowledge-based society and characterised by student-centred learning provides a different way of thinking about undergraduate education. While Bologna provides a framework of opportunity for the Liberal Arts and Sciences, there are also cultural, economic, political and social trends that contribute to a consideration of LAS within the European context. The rapidly changing landscape of the challenges emerging for the 21st century demand that all nations examine closely the nature of the education of those whose task it will be to address and resolve those issues. Climate change, genetic engineering, the consequences of globalisation, the allocation of diminishing natural resources are all issues, among others, that share certain common characteristics and lend themselves to the ways in which those with an education in the Liberal Arts and Sciences typically address problems. So, for example, while we may be confident that these questions will ultimately be resolved, they are each long-term challenges for which much of the knowledge necessary for their resolution has yet to be produced. A student who is not inspired to a passion for lifelong learning or who does not understand how the content of her or his major specifically relates to other realms of knowledge, is not equipped to acquire or produce new knowledge in meaningful ways. That student will have little to contribute to a society that increasingly demands those attributes both in and outside the workplace. At our current pace, the information available for any one discipline is being doubled every seven years. The simple transfer of current knowledge from professor to student in the university within the framework of a narrow disciplinary organisation is wholly inadequate. If narrow specialisation will be insufficient in and of itself to address 21st century issues, what and how should university students be learning in order to be sufficiently prepared? Proponents of LAS would answer briefly that students need to acquire the skills that will allow them to recognize which questions to ask, where to look for their answers and how to express them clearly and intelligently. A brief summary of the most common characteristics of Liberal Arts and Sciences will help to demonstrate its appropriateness as an educational process that cultivates those skills and which deserves careful consideration within the overall university reform movement in Europe. == '''Creating a Framework for Liberal Arts and Sciences''' == An important aspect of the Liberal Arts and Sciences is that its implementation does not correspond to a single model. It defies a rigid definition because LAS is an ongoing process of education and it is precisely this flexibility in its nature that sometimes provokes its critics. Liberal Arts and Sciences education is most prevalent in the United States and some of its European critics contend that that tradition is a result of specific circumstances that do not apply to other parts of the world where culture, history and tradition have shaped different but equally appropriate approaches to higher learning. Yet we do a disservice to LAS education if we try to straightjacket it into a specific non-transferable format rather than examine the variety of ways that its characteristics can be integrated into any educational settings where there is the will to do so. There is no cultural bias that excludes good teaching, rigorous research to help inform that teaching, an effort to help students realise their full intellectual and personal potential and preparation in the kinds of skills appropriate to the world in which students will live and work, all of which are essential to the LAS ethos. While there must be a degree of flexibility in the development and evolution of an LAS programme, in order to create a proper framework, it is, nevertheless, necessary to distinguish those characteristics that ought to be present. These factors might appear in varying degrees, but there is general agreement that they provide the basic organisation of the Liberal Arts and Sciences. A recent survey of LAS colleges and programmes included in the European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) reveals both common, essential characteristics as well as diverse complementary aspects of LAS education that testify both to its specific nature and its flexibility. Each of the programmes and institutions responding include statements attesting to the following: a curriculum that offers a broad learning perspective, deep knowledge in one or more areas of academic interest to the student and a high level of intellectual and academic development expected in both proposed learning outcomes that demonstrate a commitment to highly developed cognitive skills including problem-solving, independent critical thought, the ability to work individually and collaboratively, oral and written communication skills knowledge across a range of disciplines the importance of citizenship and its responsibilities as one of the aims of an LAS education the cultivation of the skills, knowledge and passion for lifelong learning '''== Curricular breadth and depth ==''' This is the most visible characteristic of LAS and the one that sets it apart from the typical European approach to undergraduate education. Rather than having to choose a strict discipline upon entrance to the university, an LAS curriculum will allow students to explore a range of subjects, usually during the first year or, in the case of the United States, the first two years, before focusing on a particular major area of study. There are a variety of methods to providing this “breadth plus depth” approach, but the most successful are those that seek to give coherence to the breadth portion and flexibility to curricular depth. What is often termed “general education”, the breadth portion, should not be organized just to give students a sampling of different areas of knowledge but should have a specific purpose for their overall preparation. For instance, the courses may demonstrate various modes of thought or methodologies regarding the study of critical issues – how do scientists think, how do humanists approach ideas, how do quantitative resources contribute to problem solving, etc. These courses should, at the same time, introduce practice in and communication of the analytical and critical thinking skills that will be called upon for the successful completion of whichever major discipline a student may choose. With regard to curricular depth, it is important that there be an intentional refining and application of the skills introduced in the breadth portion of the curriculum to the work required in the concentrated depth sector. Those skills are often expressed in terms of specific course learning outcomes, which are, in turn, appropriately assessed and evaluated on an individual student basis. Increasingly and appropriate to the 21st century challenges indicated above, concentrated coursework in a particular discipline is complemented by courses that students are free to choose from related disciplines that provide additional perspective to their principal area of study. Contemporary “concentration” or “major” structures can be issue-, theme- or problem-oriented and, thus, based on more than one related field of study. This interdisciplinary approach to the major has found particular favour in a number of the new and emerging Liberal Arts and Sciences undergraduate degree programmes in the European Union. Another important expression of the skills that are the objectives of learning in LAS is realized in the opportunity for undergraduates to pursue research in their chosen area of concentration. The teaching of research methodologies, the mentoring of students engaged in research and the assessment of student research efforts are all part of the teaching responsibilities of faculty in LAS programmes, and independent research is often the requirement of “capstone” exercises, Bachelor Thesis or culminating projects within the major. The overall aim of the breadth and depth nexus and the various means to its implementation is to offer a rigorous, meaningful and ultimately practical approach to undergraduate education and provide students with the knowledge and the tools for success in continued study or in the workplace. == '''Learning Environment, Learning Outcomes, Essential Skills and Lifelong Learning''' == An LAS education is designed to foster certain skills to apply to disciplinary content in meaningful and practical ways. Approaches to learning within the LAS context attempt to guide students intentionally toward the essential skills that will prepare them for advanced studies, professional development and lifelong learning: critical thinking, problem solving, collaborative learning and oral and written communication. Critical thinking is associated with the capacity to form abstract concepts, integrate them into specific circumstances and provide some judgment or evaluation of their effectiveness, in other words, mastering how to go from theory to practice. Problem solving teaches students how to collect, analyse and evaluate evidence, and then how to apply such evidence to problem resolution either within the academic setting or as part of engaged co-curricular activity. While students are responsible for their own individual academic progress, through group projects and shared research activities, collaborative learning cultivates the attitudes and provides the opportunity for experience in the kind of work that is generally expected in the workplace. The accurate and authentic expression of ideas through oral and written communication is a constant exercise throughout the curriculum and provides students with the practice and discipline necessary for their mastery. The typical LAS learning environment, generally characterized as an intensive interactive environment, provides a number of avenues for students to learn and to apply these skills. Class discussions guided by the professor, projects outside the classroom, small group collaboration among students, individual and collaborative research, as well as frequent exercises in oral and written communication, are among the pedagogical practices that enable students to acquire these important skills before taking on advanced study or employment. This environment is most successful when structured on a small scale to allow frequent interaction between and among students and faculty. While small class sizes and low student/faculty ratios are ideal for creating such an environment, it is also possible to structure large classes in such a way as to implement some of these interactive aspects. For example, lecture sections can be divided into smaller groups for the purpose of discussion, writing assignments or oral presentations. One important goal of Liberal Arts and Sciences is to provide the skills and to promote the enthusiasm in students to pursue learning beyond the classroom, what is often referred to as “lifelong learning”. Many of the pedagogical tools employed in teaching within a Liberal Arts and Sciences environment reach beyond disciplinary content to instruct students on how to learn and to keep on learning. This particular capacity, while important for the workplace where the accumulation and application of new knowledge is essential for advancement also contributes to the enhancement of the quality of life, part of the active citizenship for which the Liberal Arts and Sciences prepare students. '''''Engaged citizenship''''' Preparation for engaged citizenship is perhaps the least well understood aspect of a Liberal Arts and Sciences education but may be the most significant in terms of its overall impact. While LAS does not overlook the importance of educating the individual, it also claims that its methods, aims and outcomes prepare students to be positive actors within a community dedicated to the cultivation and exercise of those principles that define a free, democratic society. This notion is not new to LAS, rather, it formed an essential part of its purpose from its very origins. The fields of study that defined the liberal arts in the ancient world—the Quadrivium and the Trivium—were thought to provide the essential skills and knowledge to give individuals the capacity to assume community responsibility. The focus on intellectual development and curiosity, thinking critically and communicating effectively aimed and continues to aim at educating citizens willing to sustain the common good in a civic society. This is one of the areas where the purpose of an LAS education separates from the goal of simply training students for employment in the workplace. While the oft-mentioned skills of critical thinking, effective communication and problem-solving should be an essential element in the learning outcomes of specific courses, in the current LAS environment much of the refining of those skills takes place outside the classroom. Participation in student organizations, study abroad, community service, internships, volunteer work, work-study programmes and related opportunities provide students with the means to contribute actively to society at large and to learn the importance of community engagement. This is what is meant when defenders of LAS speak of educating “the whole person”. Course content is just one aspect of many that make up the overall fabric of an LAS education. It is the critical blending of each of these curricular and co-curricular elements that ultimately distinguish an LAS graduate. In sum, a basic framework for a Liberal Arts and Sciences programme will include the following: vAn institutional ethos committed to the goals and objectives of LAS *Learning outcomes that stress particular skills for lifelong education to include critical and analytical thinking, oral and written communication, collaborative learning and problem-solving *Curricular and co-curricular opportunities to apply learning skills to civic and community issues to allow students to acquire a civic consciousness *Appropriate strategies for assessment and evaluation that ensure the success of proposed learning outcomes Yet the framework is not enough to ensure that students will, in fact, experience the benefits of an LAS education. In order to successfully implement its objectives and goals, the key factor in providing an education that will realize its aims is the nature and the quality of the teaching to which students are exposed. == '''Teaching Practices at the Heart of an LAS Education''' == Teaching in a Liberal Arts and Sciences environment requires a strong commitment to its principles and a willingness to work towards excellence in teaching as a vital aspect of one’s professional development. It must be noted, however, that an essential component of good teaching in LAS is a serious dedication to ongoing scholarly activity and research. This balance between teaching and research that can help to inform teaching is critical to ensuring the success of an LAS curriculum and it is important for an LAS institution to provide faculty the resources necessary for its ongoing development. Without faculty who demonstrate the same characteristics of curiosity, problem-solving and lifelong learning that they are charged with inspiring in their students, the framework that we have just described becomes nothing more than a sterile organizational structure. The main teaching challenge for faculty in LAS programmes is how to create and sustain an interactive classroom environment that will engage students in such a way as to develop the cognitive skills that characterize LAS and, at the same time, guide them toward mastering course content. Preparation begins with the course syllabus which, in addition to listing assignments to be prepared for each class, should also include: learning outcomes for the course consistent with those of the overall curriculum, a description of the kinds of activities—group projects, oral presentations, out-of-class lectures or talks, etc.—for which students will be held responsible and an explanation of how student performance will be evaluated. In general, the faculty member leading an LAS class will act primarily as a guide, helping students to make their own discoveries about the course material, articulate those discoveries accurately and put them forward to be tested by both faculty and their student peers. While traditional lectures can remain a part of the classroom, leading class discussion, overseeing work in small groups, effectively evaluating students on an ongoing basis and developing the kind of faculty-student relationship that inspires confidence are among the necessary skills for an LAS instructor. These are learnable skills that should be periodically revised and refined through active engagement in professional development. Teaching in an LAS environment should be a subject for discussion among faculty who share together their successes and failures in the classroom in order to consistently improve classroom performance. A recent study conducted for the American Council on Education focuses on instruction and student outcomes and demonstrates the importance of the quality of instruction in helping students to attain targeted outcomes. The study lists five essential faculty practices to ensure successful student learning and can be summarized as follows: *Transparency: Students must have a clear understanding of where they are going, as well as the criteria by which they will be assessed. *Pedagogical approaches: Personalized instruction and active learning are among the most successful approaches for student-centred learning. *Assessment: Supportive learning environments that assess learning only at the end of a course are insufficient. Students need feedback along the way as they engage in multiple opportunities to practice learning. *Self-regulation: A necessary aspect of good teaching practice is to ensure that students be active learners, not just passive recipients in the learning process. *Alignment: Learning environments are most successful when there is a clearly organised coherence among its various elements so that student learning does not become fragmented. One of the ongoing difficulties for proponents of LAS has been the challenge to quantify its claims for producing positive outcomes in cognitive growth and the role that good teaching plays in that process. It is much easier to measure content knowledge through traditional testing methods than it is to assess gains in areas such as critical thinking, problem-solving, communication skills or a capacity for lifelong learning. However, recent studies in the United States have produced results that appear to confirm significant cognitive growth in LAS settings during the course of the undergraduate experience based on the quality of teaching. Among some of the important conclusions of these studies are: 1) that clear and well-organized instruction fosters the acquisition of course knowledge but also adds to student cognitive growth and 2) “deep learning” experiences have clear, positive impacts on growth in critical thinking skills and moral reasoning. Comparing the institutional results, it is demonstrated that while students exposed to clear and organized instruction and deep learning experiences in any institutional setting showed positive cognitive outcomes, “(r)elative to their peers at both research universities and regional institutions, liberal arts college students realized significant advantages on both their critical-thinking skills and their need for cognition that were attributable to exposure to higher levels of instructional clarity and organization and more frequent deep-learning experiences”. This then is the sum of our introduction: Liberal Arts and Sciences is a viable approach toward learning that provides students with the skills and competencies they require for advanced study, for productive professional careers and for meaningful lives, especially in the 21st century. It requires a certain framework within which to flourish but that framework is flexible and relies as much on process as on structure. Finally, it demands well-prepared, active teaching in order to realize the full measure of its objectives. Our next two chapters will focus on current European models of LAS institutions and the ways by which this type of learning can be effectively assessed and evaluated. While the number of LAS colleges and programmes in the European Higher Education Area remain few, their success is drawing attention across the continent as the European university is increasingly perceived to lack the requisite flexibility and structures to accommodate the new realities of higher education in the 21st century. Meanwhile, the active, ongoing communication among LAS programmes through organizations like the European Consortium for Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS), the University Colleges Deans Network in the Netherlands and projects like the Erasmus+ Best Liberal Arts and Science Teaching Expanded and Reinforced (BLASTER) are providing important platforms for the role of LAS within the current European higher education reform movement. == '''Basic Bibliography''' == This bibliography is meant only to serve as a basic introduction to Liberal Arts and Sciences. In addition to the sources mentioned in the notes above, several other fundamental resources help to give a broad context to the nature of Liberal Arts and Sciences education and its current development. '''''Articles''''' Blaich Charles, Bost Anne, Chan Ed, Lynch, Richard, Defining Liberal Arts Education, Center of Inquiry, Wabash College, 2005. Becker, Jonathan, Liberal Arts and Sciences Education: Responding to the Challenges of the XXIst Century, available as pdf. Online at [https://vo.hse.ru/data/2016/02/05/1136171884/Bekker%20(2).pdf]. Schneider, Carol Geary and Shornberg, Robert, Contemporary Understandings of Liberal Education, Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2001. Van der Wende, Marjik, The Emergence of Liberal Arts and Sciences Education in Europe: A Comparative Perspective, Higher Education Policy, 24, pp. 233-253 '''''Web sites''''' Several web sites contain significant information on current trends in Liberal Arts and Sciences education. ECOLAS (European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences, [www.ecolas.eu]) provides up to date news and activities related to LAS in the European Union AACU (American Association of Colleges and Universities, [http://www.aacu.org]) provides information on recent studies on many aspects of LAS education including pedagogy, policy and quantitative measurements. The Center for Inquiry at Wabash College (U.S.) [http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu] is dedicated to research aimed at improving LAS education. '''''Other''''' ACA (Academic Cooperation Association) sponsored a conference called “Improving Undergraduate Education in Europe: Liberal Arts and Sciences Colleges in Europe. Proceeds of the conference including copies of presentations are available online at [http://www.aca-secretariat.be/index.php?id=752]. 0667339dd532c0628850ec71e53c689f5de44ac0 58 57 2017-05-03T18:22:59Z Helen MacDermott 30449125 wikitext text/x-wiki The purpose of this Handbook is to provide an introduction to various aspects of the Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe to those for whom it is yet unfamiliar. It is also meant to provide an active resource to those institutions that currently identify themselves with LAS. The text is aimed at the widest possible audience to include educators, policy-makers, students and others interested in the evolution of undergraduate education in the European Higher Education Area. The Handbook is divided into three sections with a brief but fundamental bibliography of important resources at the end of each. The first section discusses the various elements that characterise a Liberal Arts and Sciences programme and the values that determine specific pedagogical methods and outcomes. A second section examines current models of liberal arts and sciences programmes by way of four case studies, comparing and contrasting their objectives and structures. A final section addresses the questions associated with the appropriate measure of evaluation to ensure high standards of quality in a liberal arts and sciences context. An augmented version of this Handbook may be found online at http://www.ecolas.eu/eng/. Here you will find links to additional information regarding the most important elements of our discussion. We trust that you will find this Handbook either a useful introduction or a welcome guide to the rapidly emerging world of the Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe. Preparation of this Manual was made possible by a Strategic Partnership Grant from Erasmus + titled “Best of Liberal Arts and Sciences in Europe” (BLASTER). In addition to this work on characteristics and quality standards, [http://images.shoutwiki.com/ecolas/b/b3/BLASTER.pdf BLASTER] has also produced outcomes in the areas of teacher training-professional development and undergraduate research. For more on BLASTER, please consult the European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) website listed above. *Laurent Boetsch, Executive Director, European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) *Volker Balli, Academic Director, Leuphana Universitat, Luneburg *Lieke Schreel, Educational Director, Leiden University College, The Hague == '''Why Now?''' == The term “liberal arts” is certainly not new to Europe. For centuries, beginning with its origins in the Greco-Roman tradition and its evolution through the medieval period and the Renaissance, it defined higher education through its eventual organisation around the seven liberal arts of the Trivium (grammar, logic and rhetoric, the literary arts) and the Quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy, the mathematical arts). By focusing on the cultivation of wisdom through the nourishment of the soul by engagement with and mastery of these seven liberal arts, classical scholars meant to define the distinction between “education” and “training”. Such a distinction remains characteristic of the Liberal Arts and Sciences as we see them employed today. It is the habits of mind and modes of learning from the classical period that have lent themselves to the modern aims of LAS. The importance of critical thinking and assuming self-responsibility for one’s thoughts and the articulation of those thoughts, as well as the need to acquire an understanding of nature through the critical examination of all things, remain among the foundation stones of an LAS education. The shape and ethos of liberal education remained fundamentally unchanged until the 19th century. With the emergence of new university models in France and in Germany, however, attention was diverted to other aims. Napoleon’s grandes écoles gave primacy to the training for professions, while in Germany, the value of research within a strong disciplinary orientation in combination with Wilhelm von Humboldt’s concept of bildung became critical functions of the university. The 20th century, particularly during the post-World War II era, witnessed an important evolution in higher education owing primarily to increased access to the university, what some have termed its massification. The Bologna Process, whose basic premise is to provide a framework for university reform to meet the contemporary and future needs of evolving societies within the European Union, has been instrumental as a stimulus regarding new opportunities within the higher education sphere. As the original 1998 Sorbonne Joint Declaration on harmonization of the architecture of the European higher education system states: “An open area for higher learning carries a wealth of positive perspectives, of course respecting our diversities, but requires on the other hand continuous efforts to remove barriers and to develop a framework for teaching and learning which would enhance mobility and an ever closer cooperation.” (Sorbonne, 1) Within certain areas—most notably the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and, to some extent Germany—discussion of undergraduate education for the 21st century has included reform efforts led by the proponents of the Liberal Arts and Sciences. Their objectives aim to establish a comprehensive undergraduate degree that will prepare students both for continued study and/or successful professional careers. This particular designation, Liberal Arts and Sciences, includes not just the humanities and the social sciences readily associated with “liberal arts” but the natural sciences as well. It is this range of disciplines and the attention given to the interplay among them that persuades us that this is the kind of education necessary for student generations to meet the particular challenges of the 21st century. While many member states implemented the Bachelor/Master distinction, the recommendations of the Bologna Process are not prescriptive and the realisation of its objectives across the European Union has been uneven at best. Yet those objectives, refined in a series of subsequent Declarations, have provided a broad range of opportunities to rethink the options available to member states that seek reforms in their higher education systems. While the ministerial communiqués, the various Trend reports, the minutes of the Bologna Follow-Up groups or the various publications on education produced by the Bologna Process make scant direct reference to the Liberal Arts and Sciences, there is no doubt that the process has provided the impetus for a consideration of LAS as a viable alternative within European higher education and that several successful models have emerged. One of the most important features of the Bologna reform is the recommendation to divide the university degree into three separate cycles, the Bachelor, the Masters and the Ph.D. Institutions who take this division of degree cycles seriously have had to think carefully about exactly what constitutes an undergraduate (Bachelor) degree, what are its objectives, what should students be expected to learn, how might they best learn it and how might it be accurately evaluated. The emergence of interest in the Liberal Arts and Sciences derives precisely from this kind of assessment. Additional areas within the Bologna recommendations also support the growing interest in Liberal Arts and Sciences and its aims. One is the so-called “social dimension” of the process, generally understood as providing an education that is directed toward employability in the marketplace. But this is the narrowest understanding of the objective which is outlined in the London Communiqué of 2007 in much broader terms by stating that educational policy “should . . . maximize the potential of individuals in terms of their personal development and their contribution to a sustainable and democratic knowledge-based society.” This notion of one purpose of higher education to prepare its students for democratic citizenship is among the fundamental principles of a Liberal Arts and Sciences education. One notable outcome of the Bologna Reform is the emergence of an alternative to primarily content and research education toward a more student-centred education based on closer student/faculty relationships. Education centred on the student as learner and the various modes of learning available to make it most productive are critical to the LAS ethos. As a result of the response to the Bologna recommendations by those committed to the Liberal Arts and Sciences, a first-cycle or Bachelor degree aimed toward personal development in a knowledge-based society and characterised by student-centred learning provides a different way of thinking about undergraduate education. While Bologna provides a framework of opportunity for the Liberal Arts and Sciences, there are also cultural, economic, political and social trends that contribute to a consideration of LAS within the European context. The rapidly changing landscape of the challenges emerging for the 21st century demand that all nations examine closely the nature of the education of those whose task it will be to address and resolve those issues. Climate change, genetic engineering, the consequences of globalisation, the allocation of diminishing natural resources are all issues, among others, that share certain common characteristics and lend themselves to the ways in which those with an education in the Liberal Arts and Sciences typically address problems. So, for example, while we may be confident that these questions will ultimately be resolved, they are each long-term challenges for which much of the knowledge necessary for their resolution has yet to be produced. A student who is not inspired to a passion for lifelong learning or who does not understand how the content of her or his major specifically relates to other realms of knowledge, is not equipped to acquire or produce new knowledge in meaningful ways. That student will have little to contribute to a society that increasingly demands those attributes both in and outside the workplace. At our current pace, the information available for any one discipline is being doubled every seven years. The simple transfer of current knowledge from professor to student in the university within the framework of a narrow disciplinary organisation is wholly inadequate. If narrow specialisation will be insufficient in and of itself to address 21st century issues, what and how should university students be learning in order to be sufficiently prepared? Proponents of LAS would answer briefly that students need to acquire the skills that will allow them to recognize which questions to ask, where to look for their answers and how to express them clearly and intelligently. A brief summary of the most common characteristics of Liberal Arts and Sciences will help to demonstrate its appropriateness as an educational process that cultivates those skills and which deserves careful consideration within the overall university reform movement in Europe. == '''Creating a Framework for Liberal Arts and Sciences''' == An important aspect of the Liberal Arts and Sciences is that its implementation does not correspond to a single model. It defies a rigid definition because LAS is an ongoing process of education and it is precisely this flexibility in its nature that sometimes provokes its critics. Liberal Arts and Sciences education is most prevalent in the United States and some of its European critics contend that that tradition is a result of specific circumstances that do not apply to other parts of the world where culture, history and tradition have shaped different but equally appropriate approaches to higher learning. Yet we do a disservice to LAS education if we try to straightjacket it into a specific non-transferable format rather than examine the variety of ways that its characteristics can be integrated into any educational settings where there is the will to do so. There is no cultural bias that excludes good teaching, rigorous research to help inform that teaching, an effort to help students realise their full intellectual and personal potential and preparation in the kinds of skills appropriate to the world in which students will live and work, all of which are essential to the LAS ethos. While there must be a degree of flexibility in the development and evolution of an LAS programme, in order to create a proper framework, it is, nevertheless, necessary to distinguish those characteristics that ought to be present. These factors might appear in varying degrees, but there is general agreement that they provide the basic organisation of the Liberal Arts and Sciences. A recent survey of LAS colleges and programmes included in the European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS) reveals both common, essential characteristics as well as diverse complementary aspects of LAS education that testify both to its specific nature and its flexibility. Each of the programmes and institutions responding include statements attesting to the following: a curriculum that offers a broad learning perspective, deep knowledge in one or more areas of academic interest to the student and a high level of intellectual and academic development expected in both proposed learning outcomes that demonstrate a commitment to highly developed cognitive skills including problem-solving, independent critical thought, the ability to work individually and collaboratively, oral and written communication skills knowledge across a range of disciplines the importance of citizenship and its responsibilities as one of the aims of an LAS education the cultivation of the skills, knowledge and passion for lifelong learning '''''Curricular breadth and depth''''' This is the most visible characteristic of LAS and the one that sets it apart from the typical European approach to undergraduate education. Rather than having to choose a strict discipline upon entrance to the university, an LAS curriculum will allow students to explore a range of subjects, usually during the first year or, in the case of the United States, the first two years, before focusing on a particular major area of study. There are a variety of methods to providing this “breadth plus depth” approach, but the most successful are those that seek to give coherence to the breadth portion and flexibility to curricular depth. What is often termed “general education”, the breadth portion, should not be organized just to give students a sampling of different areas of knowledge but should have a specific purpose for their overall preparation. For instance, the courses may demonstrate various modes of thought or methodologies regarding the study of critical issues – how do scientists think, how do humanists approach ideas, how do quantitative resources contribute to problem solving, etc. These courses should, at the same time, introduce practice in and communication of the analytical and critical thinking skills that will be called upon for the successful completion of whichever major discipline a student may choose. With regard to curricular depth, it is important that there be an intentional refining and application of the skills introduced in the breadth portion of the curriculum to the work required in the concentrated depth sector. Those skills are often expressed in terms of specific course learning outcomes, which are, in turn, appropriately assessed and evaluated on an individual student basis. Increasingly and appropriate to the 21st century challenges indicated above, concentrated coursework in a particular discipline is complemented by courses that students are free to choose from related disciplines that provide additional perspective to their principal area of study. Contemporary “concentration” or “major” structures can be issue-, theme- or problem-oriented and, thus, based on more than one related field of study. This interdisciplinary approach to the major has found particular favour in a number of the new and emerging Liberal Arts and Sciences undergraduate degree programmes in the European Union. Another important expression of the skills that are the objectives of learning in LAS is realized in the opportunity for undergraduates to pursue research in their chosen area of concentration. The teaching of research methodologies, the mentoring of students engaged in research and the assessment of student research efforts are all part of the teaching responsibilities of faculty in LAS programmes, and independent research is often the requirement of “capstone” exercises, Bachelor Thesis or culminating projects within the major. The overall aim of the breadth and depth nexus and the various means to its implementation is to offer a rigorous, meaningful and ultimately practical approach to undergraduate education and provide students with the knowledge and the tools for success in continued study or in the workplace. == '''Learning Environment, Learning Outcomes, Essential Skills and Lifelong Learning''' == An LAS education is designed to foster certain skills to apply to disciplinary content in meaningful and practical ways. Approaches to learning within the LAS context attempt to guide students intentionally toward the essential skills that will prepare them for advanced studies, professional development and lifelong learning: critical thinking, problem solving, collaborative learning and oral and written communication. Critical thinking is associated with the capacity to form abstract concepts, integrate them into specific circumstances and provide some judgment or evaluation of their effectiveness, in other words, mastering how to go from theory to practice. Problem solving teaches students how to collect, analyse and evaluate evidence, and then how to apply such evidence to problem resolution either within the academic setting or as part of engaged co-curricular activity. While students are responsible for their own individual academic progress, through group projects and shared research activities, collaborative learning cultivates the attitudes and provides the opportunity for experience in the kind of work that is generally expected in the workplace. The accurate and authentic expression of ideas through oral and written communication is a constant exercise throughout the curriculum and provides students with the practice and discipline necessary for their mastery. The typical LAS learning environment, generally characterized as an intensive interactive environment, provides a number of avenues for students to learn and to apply these skills. Class discussions guided by the professor, projects outside the classroom, small group collaboration among students, individual and collaborative research, as well as frequent exercises in oral and written communication, are among the pedagogical practices that enable students to acquire these important skills before taking on advanced study or employment. This environment is most successful when structured on a small scale to allow frequent interaction between and among students and faculty. While small class sizes and low student/faculty ratios are ideal for creating such an environment, it is also possible to structure large classes in such a way as to implement some of these interactive aspects. For example, lecture sections can be divided into smaller groups for the purpose of discussion, writing assignments or oral presentations. One important goal of Liberal Arts and Sciences is to provide the skills and to promote the enthusiasm in students to pursue learning beyond the classroom, what is often referred to as “lifelong learning”. Many of the pedagogical tools employed in teaching within a Liberal Arts and Sciences environment reach beyond disciplinary content to instruct students on how to learn and to keep on learning. This particular capacity, while important for the workplace where the accumulation and application of new knowledge is essential for advancement also contributes to the enhancement of the quality of life, part of the active citizenship for which the Liberal Arts and Sciences prepare students. '''''Engaged citizenship''''' Preparation for engaged citizenship is perhaps the least well understood aspect of a Liberal Arts and Sciences education but may be the most significant in terms of its overall impact. While LAS does not overlook the importance of educating the individual, it also claims that its methods, aims and outcomes prepare students to be positive actors within a community dedicated to the cultivation and exercise of those principles that define a free, democratic society. This notion is not new to LAS, rather, it formed an essential part of its purpose from its very origins. The fields of study that defined the liberal arts in the ancient world—the Quadrivium and the Trivium—were thought to provide the essential skills and knowledge to give individuals the capacity to assume community responsibility. The focus on intellectual development and curiosity, thinking critically and communicating effectively aimed and continues to aim at educating citizens willing to sustain the common good in a civic society. This is one of the areas where the purpose of an LAS education separates from the goal of simply training students for employment in the workplace. While the oft-mentioned skills of critical thinking, effective communication and problem-solving should be an essential element in the learning outcomes of specific courses, in the current LAS environment much of the refining of those skills takes place outside the classroom. Participation in student organizations, study abroad, community service, internships, volunteer work, work-study programmes and related opportunities provide students with the means to contribute actively to society at large and to learn the importance of community engagement. This is what is meant when defenders of LAS speak of educating “the whole person”. Course content is just one aspect of many that make up the overall fabric of an LAS education. It is the critical blending of each of these curricular and co-curricular elements that ultimately distinguish an LAS graduate. In sum, a basic framework for a Liberal Arts and Sciences programme will include the following: vAn institutional ethos committed to the goals and objectives of LAS *Learning outcomes that stress particular skills for lifelong education to include critical and analytical thinking, oral and written communication, collaborative learning and problem-solving *Curricular and co-curricular opportunities to apply learning skills to civic and community issues to allow students to acquire a civic consciousness *Appropriate strategies for assessment and evaluation that ensure the success of proposed learning outcomes Yet the framework is not enough to ensure that students will, in fact, experience the benefits of an LAS education. In order to successfully implement its objectives and goals, the key factor in providing an education that will realize its aims is the nature and the quality of the teaching to which students are exposed. == '''Teaching Practices at the Heart of an LAS Education''' == Teaching in a Liberal Arts and Sciences environment requires a strong commitment to its principles and a willingness to work towards excellence in teaching as a vital aspect of one’s professional development. It must be noted, however, that an essential component of good teaching in LAS is a serious dedication to ongoing scholarly activity and research. This balance between teaching and research that can help to inform teaching is critical to ensuring the success of an LAS curriculum and it is important for an LAS institution to provide faculty the resources necessary for its ongoing development. Without faculty who demonstrate the same characteristics of curiosity, problem-solving and lifelong learning that they are charged with inspiring in their students, the framework that we have just described becomes nothing more than a sterile organizational structure. The main teaching challenge for faculty in LAS programmes is how to create and sustain an interactive classroom environment that will engage students in such a way as to develop the cognitive skills that characterize LAS and, at the same time, guide them toward mastering course content. Preparation begins with the course syllabus which, in addition to listing assignments to be prepared for each class, should also include: learning outcomes for the course consistent with those of the overall curriculum, a description of the kinds of activities—group projects, oral presentations, out-of-class lectures or talks, etc.—for which students will be held responsible and an explanation of how student performance will be evaluated. In general, the faculty member leading an LAS class will act primarily as a guide, helping students to make their own discoveries about the course material, articulate those discoveries accurately and put them forward to be tested by both faculty and their student peers. While traditional lectures can remain a part of the classroom, leading class discussion, overseeing work in small groups, effectively evaluating students on an ongoing basis and developing the kind of faculty-student relationship that inspires confidence are among the necessary skills for an LAS instructor. These are learnable skills that should be periodically revised and refined through active engagement in professional development. Teaching in an LAS environment should be a subject for discussion among faculty who share together their successes and failures in the classroom in order to consistently improve classroom performance. A recent study conducted for the American Council on Education focuses on instruction and student outcomes and demonstrates the importance of the quality of instruction in helping students to attain targeted outcomes. The study lists five essential faculty practices to ensure successful student learning and can be summarized as follows: *Transparency: Students must have a clear understanding of where they are going, as well as the criteria by which they will be assessed. *Pedagogical approaches: Personalized instruction and active learning are among the most successful approaches for student-centred learning. *Assessment: Supportive learning environments that assess learning only at the end of a course are insufficient. Students need feedback along the way as they engage in multiple opportunities to practice learning. *Self-regulation: A necessary aspect of good teaching practice is to ensure that students be active learners, not just passive recipients in the learning process. *Alignment: Learning environments are most successful when there is a clearly organised coherence among its various elements so that student learning does not become fragmented. One of the ongoing difficulties for proponents of LAS has been the challenge to quantify its claims for producing positive outcomes in cognitive growth and the role that good teaching plays in that process. It is much easier to measure content knowledge through traditional testing methods than it is to assess gains in areas such as critical thinking, problem-solving, communication skills or a capacity for lifelong learning. However, recent studies in the United States have produced results that appear to confirm significant cognitive growth in LAS settings during the course of the undergraduate experience based on the quality of teaching. Among some of the important conclusions of these studies are: 1) that clear and well-organized instruction fosters the acquisition of course knowledge but also adds to student cognitive growth and 2) “deep learning” experiences have clear, positive impacts on growth in critical thinking skills and moral reasoning. Comparing the institutional results, it is demonstrated that while students exposed to clear and organized instruction and deep learning experiences in any institutional setting showed positive cognitive outcomes, “(r)elative to their peers at both research universities and regional institutions, liberal arts college students realized significant advantages on both their critical-thinking skills and their need for cognition that were attributable to exposure to higher levels of instructional clarity and organization and more frequent deep-learning experiences”. This then is the sum of our introduction: Liberal Arts and Sciences is a viable approach toward learning that provides students with the skills and competencies they require for advanced study, for productive professional careers and for meaningful lives, especially in the 21st century. It requires a certain framework within which to flourish but that framework is flexible and relies as much on process as on structure. Finally, it demands well-prepared, active teaching in order to realize the full measure of its objectives. Our next two chapters will focus on current European models of LAS institutions and the ways by which this type of learning can be effectively assessed and evaluated. While the number of LAS colleges and programmes in the European Higher Education Area remain few, their success is drawing attention across the continent as the European university is increasingly perceived to lack the requisite flexibility and structures to accommodate the new realities of higher education in the 21st century. Meanwhile, the active, ongoing communication among LAS programmes through organizations like the European Consortium for Liberal Arts and Sciences (ECOLAS), the University Colleges Deans Network in the Netherlands and projects like the Erasmus+ Best Liberal Arts and Science Teaching Expanded and Reinforced (BLASTER) are providing important platforms for the role of LAS within the current European higher education reform movement. == '''Basic Bibliography''' == This bibliography is meant only to serve as a basic introduction to Liberal Arts and Sciences. In addition to the sources mentioned in the notes above, several other fundamental resources help to give a broad context to the nature of Liberal Arts and Sciences education and its current development. '''''Articles''''' Blaich Charles, Bost Anne, Chan Ed, Lynch, Richard, Defining Liberal Arts Education, Center of Inquiry, Wabash College, 2005. Becker, Jonathan, Liberal Arts and Sciences Education: Responding to the Challenges of the XXIst Century, available as pdf. Online at [https://vo.hse.ru/data/2016/02/05/1136171884/Bekker%20(2).pdf]. Schneider, Carol Geary and Shornberg, Robert, Contemporary Understandings of Liberal Education, Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2001. Van der Wende, Marjik, The Emergence of Liberal Arts and Sciences Education in Europe: A Comparative Perspective, Higher Education Policy, 24, pp. 233-253 '''''Web sites''''' Several web sites contain significant information on current trends in Liberal Arts and Sciences education. ECOLAS (European Consortium of Liberal Arts and Sciences, [www.ecolas.eu]) provides up to date news and activities related to LAS in the European Union AACU (American Association of Colleges and Universities, [http://www.aacu.org]) provides information on recent studies on many aspects of LAS education including pedagogy, policy and quantitative measurements. The Center for Inquiry at Wabash College (U.S.) [http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu] is dedicated to research aimed at improving LAS education. '''''Other''''' ACA (Academic Cooperation Association) sponsored a conference called “Improving Undergraduate Education in Europe: Liberal Arts and Sciences Colleges in Europe. Proceeds of the conference including copies of presentations are available online at [http://www.aca-secretariat.be/index.php?id=752]. 4272cadc47f26483ac46e61838c80331b54dc71a 6 33 55 2017-05-03T14:55:11Z Helen MacDermott 30449125 wikitext text/x-wiki da39a3ee5e6b4b0d3255bfef95601890afd80709